LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


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The  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company 

intend  this  book  to  be  sold  to  the  Public 
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BOILER-WATERS 


SCALE, 

CORROSION, 

FOAMING 


B7 

WILLIAM  WALLACE   QHRISTIE 

M.  Am.  Soc.  N.  E.,  Consulting  Engineer 

AUTHOR  OF  "CHIMNEY  FORMULAE  AND  TABLES,"   "CHIMNEY  DESIGN  AND 
THEORY,"  AND  "  FURNACE  DRAFT  :  ITS  PRODUCTION 
BY  MECHANICAL   METHODS" 


SEVENTY. SEVEN    ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK 

D.  VAN  NOSTKAND    COMPANY 

23  MUERAY  AND  27  WARRED  STREETS 
1906 


Copyright,  1906 

BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,   PRINTER,  NEW  TORK 


21  steam-boiler  id  a  steam-generator, 
not  a  kettle  for  chemical  reaction. 

"(Set,  if  possible,  a  supply  of  clean,  soft, 
natural  water." 

"®lje  onlg  componno  to  jmt  into  a  boiler 
is  jmre  water." 


,  tlje  most  useful  element,  is, 
toljen  free  in  boilers,  a  most  bestrnctitJe 
corrosive  element. 


161878 


PEEFACE. 


THE  relative  value  of  one  boiler  to  another  may,  in  many 
cases,  be  measured  by  its  scale-forming  propensity  with  a  given 
water. 

Purify  this  water  and  all  boilers  come  much  nearer  a  uniform 
value  per  unit  of  heating-surface. 

This  work  has  for  its  object  to  furnish  steam-users  with  in- 
formation regarding  water,  its  use,  and  troubles  arising  from  the 
use  of  water,  and  remedies  that  may  be  used  or  applied;  the  gain 
being  more  efficient  generation  of  steam. 

It  is  due  to  the  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Association  that 
real  progress  has  been  made  in  the  softening  of  water  for  loco- 
motives, along  which  line  much  work  is  being  done,  and  the  same 
line  of  work  is  now  being  taken  up  by  manufacturers  and  indus- 
trial corporations. 

The  author  wishes  to  thank  all  who  have  aided  him  in  his 
work;  credit  has  been  given,  as  far  as  possible,  to  those  to  whom 
credit  is  due,  and  he  sends  the  book  forth  as  a  pioneer  on  the 
subject  in  this  country,  and  he  will  be  glad  to  receive  suggestions, 
just  criticisms,  and  new  material  looking  toward  a  more  perfect 
and  rounded-out  work  in  the  near  future. 

WILLIAM  WALLACE  CHRISTIE. 

PATERSON,  N.  J.,  Oct.  1st,  1906. 

v 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAQB 

WATER,   ITS    PROPERTIES,    MATERIALS    FOUND    IN   WATER,    WATER 
ANALYSIS 1 

CHAPTER  II. 
BOILER-SCALE — TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT-CONDUCTIVITY  OF  SOLIDS 39 

CHAPTER  III. 
CORROSION 68 

CHAPTER  IV. 
FEED- WATER  PIPES— BLOW-OFF  PIPES  —TUBES 103 

CHAPTER  V. 
PRIMING  AND  FOAMING 117 

CHAPTER  VI. 
OIL— GREASE — ZINC 128 

CHAPTER  VII. 
HARDNESS  OF  WATER 142 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
FEED-WATER  HEATERS — ECONOMIZERS 1 54 

CHAPTER  IX. 
WATER-SOFTENING 1 77 

CHAPTER  X. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES 217 

vii 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


BOILER-WATERS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

WATER,    ITS    PROPERTIES,    MATERIALS     FOUND     IN    WATER, 
WATER  ANALYSIS. 

STEAM-MAKING  is  the  important  thing  in  all  steam-plants; 
next  in  importance  to  the  boilers  themselves  is  the  water  to  be 
evaporated  as  steam. 

Water  is  a  combination  of  the  two  very  abundant  elements, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  hydrogen 
by  volume  to  one  part  oxygen  (H20);  it  is  also  one  part  by  weight 
of  hydrogen  to  eight  parts  of  oxygen. 

All  living  things,  plant  and  animal,  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  water. 

Water  as  used  in  power-plants  is  seldom  sent  to  the  boiler  in 
a  proper  condition  of  purity,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  large  number 
of  boilers  in  which  scale  or  corrosion  is  found. 

Distilled  water  should  not  be  used  unless  a  certain  amount  of 
raw  water  be  added  to  it  at  regular  intervals  to  prevent  entirely 
or  lessen  its  corrosive  action. 

The  most  desirable  feed-water  is  soft  water,  either  that  natu- 
rally soft  or  water  that  has  been  treated  by  one  of  the  many  methods 
of  water-softening  now  in  use,  which  destroy  scale-forming  proper- 
ties. 

Rain-water,  a  water  we  should  think  would  come  to  us  pure, 
is  never  entirely  so,  frequently  containing  one  to  three  parts  of 
inorganic  impurities  per  100,000  parts  of  water. 


2  BOILER-WATERS. 

Snow  and    rain   always  contain  gases  of  atmospheric  origin, 
among  which  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid.* 


Nitrogen.  .  . 
Ammonia.  . 
Nitric  acid. 
Chlorine.  .  . 
Lime. ..... 

Magnesium. 


Water  Falling  at  Paris. 
Grams  per  Cubic  Meter. 


6.397 
3.334 
14.069 
2.081 
6.220 
2.100 


7.939 
2.769 
21.800 
1.946 
5.397 
2.300 


In  addition  to  gases,  we  find  in  water  the  salts  of  ammonium, 
sodium,  and  calcium. 

Rain-water  we  may  say  in  a  general  way  is  the  purest  of  all 
natural  waters. 

From  seventy-one  samples  of  water  collected  at  a  farm  at 
Rothamsted,  England,  we  have  for  an  average: 

Total  dissolved  solids 3 . 95 

Organic  carbon 0 . 099 

Organic  nitrogen 0 . 022 

Ammonia . .  0 .050    parts  per 

Nitrogen  as  nitrates  and  nitrites 0 .007        °0'00 

Total  combined  nitrogen 0.071 

Chlorine 0 . 063 

From  Massachusetts  we  have  this  analysis  of  polluted  river- 
water  : 

Turbidity slight 

Color 1.5 

f  Albuminoid  ammonia 0 . 263 

Nitrogen  as   j  *"*.  ammonia 0.664 

I  Nitrites 0.025 

[Nitrates 0.800 

Chlorine 24 . 1 

Total  residue 127.0 

All  in  parts  per  million. 

The  waters  of  many  rivers  are  contaminated  with  much  coloring- 
matter  and  other  organic  matter  in  suspension,  which  can  be 
readily  filtered  out  and  save  much  trouble  in  the  boiler. 


*  De  La  Coux,  p.  8. 


IMPURITIES  IN    WATER. 


The  same  remark  will  apply  if  we  leave  certain  organic  matter 
in  the  water,  as  we  shall  see  later  is  the  case  with  river-water  at 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WELL-WATER.* 
(U.  S.  Government  Wells,  Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.) 


Machine- 
shop. 

Officers'  Quarters. 

Sulphuric  acid  

.0352 
.0225 
.0014 
.0005 
.0109 
.0053 
.0419 
.0042 
.0074 
.0015 
.0408 
.0083 

.0170    1 
.0142    J 
.0013    i 
.0012 
.0127 
.0117 
.0296 
.0003    J 
.0087    ' 
.0024 
.0412 
.0064 

Grams  per  liter. 

„  Soluble  residue, 
grams  per  liter. 

Insoluble   residue, 
grams  per  liter. 

Chlorine 

Silica 

Iron  and  alumina 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Soda                              

Potash                              

Silica                     

Iron  and  alumina       

Lime           

Magnesia  

Suspended 
matter 


IMPURITIES  IN  NATURAL  WATERS^ 

T  .  .   r  Sand.  clay,  and  various  pulverized  min- 

Inorgamc  or  mineral  j  '      • 

Living  microscopic  animals;  dead 
fish  and  parts  thereof;  feathers 
from  birds,  etc. ;  decayed  animal 
refuse;  hair;  manufacturing 
wastes,  such  as  wool-scourings, 
dyehouse  wastes,  blood  from 
slaughter-houses,  etc.;  excre- 
ment and  urine  from  sewers,  etc. 


.  Organic 


Animal 


Vegetable 


Dried  leaves,  grass,  flowers;  de- 
cayed wood;  peaty  matter;  alga; 
and  other  plant  life,  including 
bacteria;  wastes  from  cotton-, 

.  silk-,  and  linen-mills,  and  from 
distilleries,  etc. 


Dissolved 
matter 


Gaseous 


Solid 


f  Carbon  dioxide. 

\  Hydrogen  bisulphide. 

f  Inorganic  metals  in  general. 

1  rw«.«™,,      /  Animal — see  above. 
I  Orgamc      \  Vegetable-see  above. 


*  TJ.S.  Government  Tests,  1886,  p.  4. 

t  From  W.  S.  and  1.  P.,  No.  79,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


BOILER-WATERS. 

Spring-water,  like  well-water,  is  frequently  impregnated  with 
carbonic-acid  gas,  which  comes  from  the  organic  matter  in  the 
earth. 

The  water  obtained  from  the  granitic  rocks  is  purer  than  that 
from  the  secondary  strata,  which  latter  is  calcareous  in  its  make-up. 

Unfiltered  and  filtered  water  may  contain  certain  of  the  chemi- 
cal elements,  such  as  sodium,  calcium,  potassium,  etc.,  which  re- 
main in  solution  at  the  ordinary  or  lower  temperatures,  but  which 
decompose  when  subjected  to  the  high  temperatures  from  furnace- 
fires,  and  which  elements  fall  to  the  shells  or  tubes  of  boilers  as  a 
fine  powder  or,  what  is  more  frequent,  adhere  to  the  tubes  and 
shell  as  scale. 

Some  spring-waters  contain  zinc ;  *  for  example,  one  in  southern 
Missouri  has  this  analysis: 


Parts 
per  Millon. 

PbSO4 trace 

CuSO4 0.5 

CdSO4 0.9 

ZnSO4 297.7 

FeSO4 1.6 

MnSO4. 6.3 

A12(SO4)3 2.5 


Parts 
per  Million. 

CaSO4 109.9 

MgSO4 19.0 

K2SO4 5.6 

Na2SO4 5.9 

NaCl 4.3 

CaCO3 72.0 

SiO2 13.7 


Compressibility  of  Water.— Water  is  but  slightly  compressible: 
for  each  foot  of  pressure  distilled  water  will  be  diminished  .0000015 
to  .0000013  in  volume. 

At  a  depth  of  half  a  mile,  2640  feet,  a  cubic  foot  weighs  only 
about  one  quarter  of  a  pound  more  than  at  the  surface. 

The  freezing-point  of  water  is  at  32°  F.  at  the  ordinary  at- 
mospheric pressure — sea-level — and  ice  melts  at  the  same  tem- 
perature. 

Sea-water  freezes  at  27°  F.,  and  the  ice  is  fresh.  The  usual 
sources  of  water  are: 

1.  Rain  or  melted  snow; 

2.  Lakes,  rivers,  or  creeks; 

3.  Wells,  driven  or  dug; 

4.  Mineral  springs; 

5.  Ocean-  or  sea-water; 

*  Hillebrand,  Bui.  113,  U  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


GASES  IN   WATER. 


and  the  forms  of  water  commonly  known  to  us  are 
(a)  Solid  form — Ice; 
(6)  Liquid  form — Water; 
(c)  Gaseous  form — Steam. 

Though  water  is  used  for  domestic  purposes,  and  for  washing 
in  its  broad  sense,  and  to  sustain  life,  it  is  only  its  use  in  steam- 
boilers — steam-making — that  we  shall  consider  in  this  book. 

Peaty  water  from  woodlands  has  a  solvent  action  on  lead 
pipes  due  to  its  acidify,  which  varies  in  terms  of  a  sulphuric  acid 
equivalent  from  1  to  4  parts  in  100,000. 

Mr.  Ackroyd  says  that  the  solvent  action  would  not  occur  if 
the  acidity  did  not  exceed  0.5  part  in  100,000. 

High  velocity  of  steam-particles  is  considered  favorable  to  both 
corrosion  and  incrustation. 

Oxygen  Dissolved  in  Water. — Nearly  all  waters  contain  oxygen 
in  solution. 

Spenmath  states  that  water  absorbs  oxygen  as  follows: 
At  32°, F.  it  absorbs  4.9  per  cent  of  its  own  bulk; 
At  50°  F.  it  absorbs  3.8  per  cent  of  its  own  bulk; 
At  68°  F.  it  absorbs  3.1  per  cent  of  its  own  bulk. 
Stromeyer  states  that  under  150  pounds  pressure  cold  feed- 
water  absorbs  3.2  pounds  of  oxygen  per  ton  of  water. 

ABSORPTION  OF  GASES. 


Coefficients  of  Absorption 
in  Water. 

At  0°  C. 
(32°  F.) 

At  20°  C. 
(68°  F  ) 

Nitrogen  .  ... 

0.02035 
1  .  7967 
0.04114 
0.02471 

0.01403 
0.9014 
0.02838 
0.01704 

Carbonic  acid  
Oxygen.  
Atmospheric  air  

Figure  la  is  a  graphic  representation  of  the  relation  of  tem- 
perature to  the  evolution  of  mixed  gases  in  water  under  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  and  is  taken  from  a  paper  read  before  the  Victorian 
Institute  of  Engineers,  Australia,  by  Mr.  James  Alex.  Smith. 

The  water  used  in  making  the  determinations  was  the  ordinary 
"Yan  Yean"  supplied  to  Melbourne,  Australia,  and  which  is, 
chemically,  almost  a  natural  distilled  water. 


BOILER-WATERS. 

Gases  were  expelled  from  unit  volume  of  water. 
Gases  previously  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere  at  54°  F, 
Composition  of  gases:    Oxygen  31,  nitrogen  69  per  cent. 
Barometer,  29.9  in. 


170  180  1'JO 

TEMPERATURE 


210°  F. 


.000 


FIG.  la. — Temperature-gas-emission  Curve. 


Temperature  of  water  raised  from  54°  F.,  and  steadily  increased 
to  212°  F.  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  (150)  minutes. 
First  evolution  of  gas  at  120°. 
Mr.  Smith  says  that  "known  facts  relating  to  feed-pipes,  econo- 


SEA-WATER. 


mizer  tubes,  and  those  parts  of  boilers  near  the  inlet  amply  prove 
that  marked  oxidation  may  ensue  when  the  gases  are  released  by 
temperature  increment  and  whilst  they  still  continue  in  a  con- 
stricted fluid  flow;  in  contact  with  relatively  large  bounding  super- 
ficies." 

Atmospheric  air  contains  only  -—  of  carbonic  acid,  whereas 


the  air  held  in  solution  in  water  contains  from  40  to  42  per  cent 
of  carbonic  acid.  The  boiling-point  of  water  depends  on  the 
substances  it  contains  in  solution,  or,  in  other  words,  depends 
upon  its  purity,  also  upon  the  atmospheric  pressure  or  pressure 
in  vessels  containing  the  water. 

Water  containing  sodium  chloride  has  the  boiling-point  raised 
in  proportion  to  its  salinity  as  shown  in  the  following  table  :  * 


Deg.  C. 

Deg.  F- 

Pure  water 

100 

212 

Water  containing    5 

per  cent  of  sodium  chloride 

101 

213  8 

"               "          10 

103  0 

217  5 

"               "          15 

<  <      «     «        «             1  1 

104  6 

220 

20 
25 

(t      «     «        n             <  < 
n      t  (     a       n             it 

106.3 
107.9 

223.5 
226.3 

A  solution  containing  30  per  cent  of  magnesium  chloride  boils 
at  115.6°C.  (240°  F.). 

Sea-water  is  very  much  like  deep  well-water,  having  many 
substances  in  common.  There  are  certain  salts  in  each  which 
are  especially  corrosive  and  scale-forming.  They  are: 


0     .    ,        . 
Scale  -forming 


Corrosive 


j  Sulphate  of  calcium. 

i  0  ,   ,  c 

\  Sulphate  of  magnesium. 

-,,,.,      .       ,.          /  In  presence  of  calcium  and   magne- 
Chlonde  of  sodium    (        "  6 

I      smm  salts. 

Chloride  of  magnesium. 
Chloride  of  calcium. 
Chloride  of  potassium. 

Sulphate  of  calcium,  a  very  troublesome  scale-forming  salt, 
is  decidedly  prevalent  in  both  sea-  and  well-waters. 

Calcium  Sulphate,f  CaSO4.  —  Calcium  sulphate,  known  as  gyp- 
sum, or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  slightly  soluble  in  salt  water  or  pure 


*  De  La  Coux,  p.  34. 

t  See  Eng.  News,  vol.  40,  403. 


BOILER-WATERS. 


water  at  temperatures  between  140°  and  150°  C.  (284°  and  302°  F.) 
and  beyond;  precipitation  which  has  been  started  by  heating  the 
solution  to  140°-150°  C.  (284°-302°  F.)  continues  even  after  the 
water  has  been  cooled.  Below  284°  F.  the  lower  the  temperature 
the  greater  the  solubility. 

TABLE  OF  SOLUBILITY  OF  CALCIUM  SULPHATE  IN  100  PARTS  OF 
WATER  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURES. 


Temperature,  deg.  C.  . 

140 

165 

175-185 

240 

250 

"    F.. 

284 

329 

347-365 

464 

482 

Parts  CaSO4  

0  078 

0  056 

0  027 

0  018 

0  016 

Precipitation  of  CaSO4  is  in  the  form  of  heavy  crystals.  It 
is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat.  Being  soluble  in  water  free  from 
carbonic-acid  gas  at  the  moderately  low  temperatures,  it  can  be 
removed  by  means  of  carbonate  of  soda — soda-ash.  The  chemistry 
of  the  reaction  is  CaS04  +  Na2CO3=,  after  being  dissolved  in 
water  and  mixed,  CaCO3  +  Na2S04.  CaCO3  settles  as  a  white 
precipitate.  Caustic  soda  may  also  be  used,  but  gives  a  slightly 
different  reaction. 

Prof.  V.  B.  Lewes  *  has  found  by  experiment  that  if  sea-water 
is  diluted  a  thousand  times  its  own  bulk  with  distilled  water, 
the  minute  trace  of  calcium  sulphate  will  separate  in  a  thin  pellicle, 
which  attaches  itself  to  the  side  of  the  vessel  when  a  temperature 
of  300°  F.  is  reached,  at  which  temperature  all  of  the  calcium 
sulphate  will  separate  out,  though  more  slowly  than  at  higher 
temperatures. 

G.  M.  Davidson  states  that  calcium  sulphate  is  much  more 
harmful  to  boilers  than  large  quantities  of  sodium  sulphate,  pro- 
vided the  calcium  sulphate  does  not  run,  say,  above  150  grains  per 
gallon. 

Sodium  sulphate  can  be  removed  by  blowing  off  or  washing 
out;  calcium  sulphate  once  precipitated  can  only  be  removed  with 
great  difficulty.  It  forms  no  scale  in  the  pipes  of  the  fuel-econo- 
mizer, the  temperatures  attained  in  the  water  not  being  sufficiently 
high.  Its  deposition  in  boilers  is  due  to  the  slow  concentration  of 
the  water  and  higher  temperatures  reached  in  them. 

Calcium  sulphate  in  boiler-waters  causes  hard  incrustation 
*  V.  30,  345  Inst.  Nav.  Archs. 


IMPURITIES  IN   WATER. 


9 


which  is  difficult  to  remove,  and  causes  a  noticeable  loss  in  evapo- 
rative efficiency  of  the  boiler.  It  also  becomes  mixed  with  mud 
in  the  boiler  and  renders  the  resultant  scale  hard. 

Water  temporarily  hard,  with  the  proper  handling  of  the 
boiler  gives  a  loose  powdery  or  sludge  deposit,  such  hardness  being 
due  to  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates. 

Water  permanently  hard,  usually  due  to  calcium  sulphate, 
generally  produces  a  hard  scale,  and  one  of  the  most  objectionable 
of  scales,  especially  due  to  the  fact  that  it  becomes  less  soluble 
in  water  at  the  higher  temperatures,  as  given  by  the  following 
table. 

SOLUBILITIES  IN  GRAINS  PER  GALLON  (ENGLISH).* 


Temperature, 
Degrees  F. 

Corresponding 
Steam 
Pressure, 
Pounds. 

Chemicals  and  Experimenters. 

Calcium 
Oxide,  t 

Calcium  Sulphate. 

Lanny, 
1878. 

Marignac, 
1874. 

Poggiale, 
1879. 

Tilden  and 
Shenstone. 

32 
40 
59 
64.4 
68 
75.2 
86 
95 
101.5 
111 
127.4 
140 
158 
161.6 
210.2 
212 
284 
323.6 
356 
464 
482 

96.7 
94.0 
91.0 

133.0 
143.0 

iieis 

143.5 

168.7 
177.8 

170.8 
151 

54.6 
39.2 
18.9 
12.6 
12.6 



81.4 

7o!i 

'.7Q.*8 

150.3 
147.0 



140.8 
122.6 

'4()'.2 

0 
37 

79 
131 
484 
575 



*  Engineering,  Dec.  25,  1903.  t  Caustic  lime. 

Calcium  Carbonate,  CaCO3. — Calcium  carbonate,  commonly 
known  as  limestone,  marble,  or  chalk,  is  readily  soluble  in  water 
containing  carbonic-acid  gas,  is  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot 
water. 


10  BOILER-WATERS. 

When  recently  precipitated  it  is  soluble  in  8834  parts  of  boiling 
water,  in  10,601  parts  of  cold  water,  and  at  a  temperature  of 
15°  C.  (59°  F.)  is  soluble  in  12,858  parts  of  water;  another 
authority  says  it  is  soluble  in  16,000  to  24,000  parts  of  pure  water. 
It  does  not  form  a  very  hard  scale,  but  is  sometimes  bulky  upon 
crystallization. 

Carbonate  of  lime  is  held  in  solution  in  water  which  contains 
carbonic-acid  gas,  so  that  any  chemical  which  will  take  up  the 
carbonic-acid  gas  will  precipitate  the  calcium  carbonate.  The 
most  frequently  used  chemical  for  this  purpose  is  common  build- 
ing-lime, or  quicklime  as  it  is  called.  It  unites  with  the  water 
and  forms  a  new  substance — hydrate  of  lime,  or  slaked  lime — 
which  takes  up  the  carbonic-acid  gas  and  forms  calcium  carbonate, 
which  being  then  insoluble,  is  all  precipitated  as  a  white  powder. 

Carbonate  of  lime  forms  a  hard  scale  in  economizers  and  a 
soft  mud  in  boilers,  unless  sulphate  of  lime  is  present,  when  it 
also  is  cemented  into  a  scale. 

When  the  carbonate  of  lime  is ,  precipitated  out  of  water  it 
first  appears  as  a  bluish-white  thin  starch,  which  can  readily  pass 
through  the  best  chemical  filters,  not  being  arrested  by  wood- 
wool, cloth,  or  sponges.  If  allowed  to  stand  or  be  slightly  heated, 
the  color  changes  to  yellow,  and  no  amount  of  shaking  will  change 
it  back;  it  likewise  settles  very  slowly.  Prof.  Wanklyn's  experi- 
ments give  25  minutes  for  this  precipitate  to  settle  through  f  inch 
of  water,  8  hours  or  480  minutes  to  clear  up  20  inches  depth 
of  water;  the  rate  of  settlement  being  1.8  to  2.5  inches  per 
hour  with  the  water  cold]  We  can  thus  see  why  large  settling- 
tanks  are  necessary  when  working  with  cold  water. 

If  the  raw  water  is  heated,  as  is  done  in  some  of  the  softening 
processes,  the  settling-tank  is  made  smaller. 

Sulphate  of  lime  and  magnesium  hydrate  form  the  hardest 
kind  of  a  scale ;  a  scale  of  this  kind  has  the  following  composition : 

Carbonate  of  lime. 2.490  per  cent 

Sulphate  of  lime 74.280 

Magnesium  hydrate 18 .000 

Alumina  and  oxide  of  iron 1 .276 

Silica 1-830 

Organic  matter. 2 . 124 

100.000  per  cent 


IMPURITIES  IN   WATER  11 

This  scale  had  to  be  chipped  from  the  boiler-shell. 
Six  specimens  of    incrustations  analyzed  by   Prof.   Chandler 
gave  for  averages: 

Sulphate  of  lime 56 . 49  per  cent 

Carbonate  of  lime 18.11    "      " 

Basic  carbonate  of  magnesia 19.77    ' 

Oxide  of  iron  and  aluminium 0 . 69    ' ' 

Silica 3.81    "      " 

Organic  matter not  determined 

Water 1 . 62  per  cent 

100.00  per  cent 

Magnesium  Sulphate,  MgS04. — Magnesium  sulphate,  or  Epsom 
salts,  is  very  slowly  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  easily  soluble  in 
warm  water;  is  very  common  and  decomposes  at  high  tempera- 
tures, forming  scale.  At  the  higher  temperatures  the  solubility 
increases  as  the  temperature.  It  does  not  of  itself  form  boiler- 
scale,  but  when  in  a  boiler  containing  carbonate  of  lime  a  chemical 
reaction  takes  place,  when  hydrate  of  magnesia  and  calcium  sul- 
phate are  formed.  These  two  compounds  form  a  very  hard  and 
stony  scale. 

The  sulphate  and  carbonates  of  calcium  cause  most  all  of  the 
scale  troubles  in  boilers. 

Rankine  in  his  "  Mechanics  "  gives  this  table  of  resistance  to 
passage  of  heat  of  various  substances: 

Wrought  iron 1 

Copper 0.4 

Slate 9.5 

Brick. 16.7 

Calcium  carbonate 17 

Calcium  sulphate 48 

Magnesium  Carbonate,  MgCO3. — Magnesium  carbonate,  or 
magnesia,  is  insoluble  in  water.  Like  carbonate  of  lime,  it  is 
held  in  solution  by  carbonic-acid  gas,  and  is  precipitated  when 
the  gas  is  driven  off  by  the  use  of  slaked  lime. 

This  substance  forms  the  principal  ingredient  of  a"  well-known 
steam-pipe  covering,  and  is  there  used  to  keep  the  heat  in  the  pipes  ; 
it  should  be  kept  out  of  the  boiler's  interior  parts  as  scale;  that  is, 
out  of  all  the  water-surface  in  the  tubes,  shell,  and  all  parts  of 
the  boiler  itself. 


12 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Magnesium  Chloride,  MgC^.  —  Magnesium  chloride  is  very 
soluble  in  water,  and  evolves  heat  when  in  solution.  1  part  is 
soluble  in  one  part  of  cold  water;  1  part  is  soluble  in  1.857  parts 
of  water  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.). 

Sodium  Sulphate,  Na2SO4.  —  One  part  of  sodium  sulphate  is 
soluble  in  7.367  parts  of  water  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.).  100  parts  of 
water  at  0°  C.  (32°  F.)  dissolve  5.155  parts  of  sodium  sulphate; 
at  100°.6  C.  (213°  F.)  100  parts  of  water  dissolve  45.985  parts  of 
sodium  sulphate.  The  maximum  solubility  is  at  33°  C.  (91°.5  F.). 
The  solubility  is  least  at  103°.17  C.  or  218°  F. 


SOLUBILITY  OF 


IN  WATER  AT  THE  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES 
AND  PRESSURES.* 


Parts  of  Na2SO4  contained  in  100  parts  of  the  saturated  solution  at 
pressure  A  in  atmospheres. 


0°C. 

15°  C. 

15.4°  C. 

A. 

(32°  F  ) 

(59°  F.) 

(59.75°  F.) 

1 

4.40 

11.32 

11.4 

20 

4.53 

10.78 

10.74 

30 

10.05 

40 

10.33 

Where  sulphate  of  soda  is  present  in  excessive  quantities  in 
boilers,  the  frequent  use  of  the  blow-off  cock  will  remove  the  con- 
centrated solution  and  prevent  foaming. 

Sodium  Carbonate,  Na2COs. — Sodium  carbonate,  known  as 
"  soda  crystals,"  washing-soda,  Scotch  soda,  or  soda-ash,  is  soluble 
in  water  with  evolution  of  heat.  One  part  is  soluble  in  2  to  5.967 
parts  of  water  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.).  It  possesses  four  different  degrees 
of  rapidity  of  solubility,  due  to  varying  quantities  of  water  of 
crystallization,  and  is  but  little  more  soluble  at  34°-38°  C.  (93°.2- 
100°.4  F.)  than  at  104°  C.  (219°.2  F.). 

A  saturated  solution  forms  a  crust  at  104°.l  C.  (219°.2  F.),  and 
contains  42.2  parts  of  sodium  carbonate  to  100  parts  of  water. 
The  highest  temperature  observations  were  at  105°  C.  (221°  F.). 

Soda-ash  is  a  dry,  sometimes  impure  carbonate,  and  is  used 
where  a  cheap  reagent  is  wanted  in  large  quantities,  and  is  not 
adapted  to  "  cold-process  "  treatments.  Flynt  f  says  that  soda- 


*  Moller. 


t  Eng.  Mag.,  1903. 


IMPURITIES   IN   WATER. 


13 


ash,  if  used  to  treat  water  which  is  "  hard  "  because  of  bicarbonates 
with  free  carbonic  acid  dissolved,  can  only  be  used  in  conjunction 
with  lime,  and  then  in  the  purification  of  waters  which  contain 
silicates  or  sulphates  only,  either  or  both. 

Muddiness  in  the  water  as  seen  in  the  gauge-glasses  is  a  sure 
test  if  too  much  soda-ash  is  being  used,  and  when  this  is  noticed 
and  acted  upon  there  should  be  no  further  trouble  from  material 
passing  over  to  the  engine-cylinders. 

Sodium  Chloride,  NaCl. — Sodium  chloride,  or  common  salt,  is 
always  present  in  sea-water,  and  is  frequently  found  in  artesian- 
well  water  when  wells  are  driven  near  sea  or  ocean.  It  is  soluble 
in  water;  36  parts  of  sodium  chloride  mixed  with  100  parts  of 
water  at  12°.6  C.  (54°.7  F.)  lowers  the  temperature  2°.5  C. 
(4°.5  F.).  The  presence  of  other  salts  increases  the  solubility  of 
sodium  chloride  in  water. 

SOLUBILITY  OP  NaCl  IN  100  PARTS  OF  WATER  AT  GIVEN 
TEMPERATURES.* 


Temperature. 

Temperature. 

Deg.  C. 

Deg.  F. 

Deg.  C. 

Deg.  F. 

-15 

5 

32.73 

40 

104 

36.64 

-10 

14 

33.49 

50 

122 

36.98 

-    5 

23 

34.22 

60 

140 

37.25 

0 

32 

35.52 

70 

158 

37.88 

5 

41 

35.63 

80 

176 

38.22 

9 

48.2 

35.74 

90 

194 

38.87 

14 

57.2 

35.87 

100 

212 

39.61 

25 

77 

36.13 

109.7 

229.5 

40.35 

*  Poggiale. 


Another  table  gives  these  figures: 

At    32°  F.  20,849  grains  NaCl  dissolved  per  gallon 
"     68°  F.  21,014      "         " 
"  122°  F.  21,598      "         "  "          "        " 


"  167°  F.  22,182 
"  194°  F.  22,767 
"  220°  F.  23,349 
"  239°  F.  23,640 


14  BOILER-WATERS. 

Silica. — Silica  is  never  dissolved  in  large  quantities  in  steam- 
boiler  water,  and  but  little  is  present  in  scale,  but  it  is  often  com- 
bined with  alumina. 

With  other  impurities  in  time  there  is  formed  a  jelly-like  paste, 
changing  under  heat  to  a  white,  laminated  mass,  undulating  in 
its  surface,  which  can  be  detached  by  scraping  from  the  shell  of 
the  boiler. 

Heat  eventually  bakes  it  into  a  hard  crust,  removed  by  chipping. 

Silica  is  easily  precipitated  by  boiling  the  water  at  atmospheric 
pressure,  and  it  is  occasionally  found  in  liberal  proportions  in  low- 
pressure  boilers  with  sulphate  of  lime. 

Silicic  Acid,  SiO2. — Silicic  acid  is  soluble  in  1000  parts  of  pure 
H20,  water. 

Oxides  of  Iron  and  Aluminium,  Fe203  and  A1203.— Fe2O3, 
oxide  of  iron,  is  formed  at  110°- 140°  C.  (230°-284°  F.),  and  is 
insoluble  in  water,  H2O,  or  in  solutions  of  alkalies.  A12O3,  alumi- 
nium oxide,  is  insoluble  in  acids  and  soluble  in  water. 

Caustic  Baryta,  Ba(OH)2. — Caustic  baryta  is  said  by  H.  de  la 
Coux  to  be  an  admirable  remedy  for  encrusting-corrosive  waters, 
sea-water  and  deep-well  water.  It  transforms  sulphate  of  calcium 
into  sulphate  of  barium,  which  does  not  adhere  to  the  boiler- 
plates. As  to  corrosion  it  acts  energetically;  for  instance,  with 
chloride  of  magnesium  at  boiling-point  magnesium  oxide  is  rapidly 
precipitated.  The  chloride  of  barium  then  obtained  precipitates 
the  sulphate  of  calcium  in  turn.  It  is  much  better  to  use,  under 
the  above  conditions,  than  lime,  which  increases  scale  rather  than 
preventing  it  when  used  in  excess. 

Carbonate  of  Barium  (Witherite). — Carbonate  of  barium,  a 
by-product  of  sugar-refineries,  may  be  used  to  advantage  with 
deep-well  waters,  as,  even  cold,  it  precipitates  the  metallic  oxides 
of  the  salts  which  are  very  injurious,  such  as  sulphate  of  iron  and 
aluminium.  It  is  also  used  to  treat  water  too  high  in  sulphates. 
It  adds  nothing  to  the  water,  and  with  calcium  sulphate  forms 
barium  sulphate,  which  is  precipitated,  and  calcium  carbonate, 
which  also  is  readily  precipitated.  It  is  used  for  waters  high  in 
sulphates  or  free  sulphuric  acid. 

Glycerine. — H.  de  la  Coux  says  that  the  use  of  glycerine  as 
recommended  by  Asselin  and  P.  Videt  depends  upon  the  great 
solubility  of  the  calcic  salts  in  this  agent.  When  the  water  by 


IMPURITIES  IN   WATER.  15 

continued  evaporation  contains  too  great  a  quantity  of  calcic  salts 
for  the  glycerine  salts,  the  salts  of  the  alkaline  earths,  instead  of 
forming  adhesive  scale,  take  a  gelatinous  form  and  will  not  adhere 
to  the  boiler-plates. 

Acids. — Acids  have  been  described  as  salts  of  hydrogen;  and 
those  acids  most  common  have  these  properties: 

1.  Solubility  in  water; 

2.  A  sour  taste  (even  after  great  dilution); 

3.  Reddening  organic  blue,  etc.; 

4.  The   power   of   decomposing    most    carbonates,  causing 

effervescence ; 

5.  The  power  of  destroying  the  characteristics  of  alkalies 

and  forming  alkaline  salts. 

Sulphate  of  aluminium  and  potassium  (alum)  possesses  all  of 
the  above  characteristics,  though  it  is  not  an  acid.  Sewage  con- 
tains ammonia,  which,  as  a  gas,  escapes  from  the  water  or  per- 
meates it,  and  neutralizes  the  carbonic-acid  gas. 

Wood  Extracts. — We  frequently  hear  of  wood  chips  or  chunks 
of  wood  of  different  varieties  being  placed  directly  in  the  boiler; 
neither,  however,  is  as  satisfactory  as  the  use  of  the  wood  extract. 
Logwood  or  oak  wood  is  frequently  used;  but  the  quantity, 
as  for  any  other  material,  must  be  determined  for  each  water  used. 

There  are  many  mixtures  called  boiler  compounds  used  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  scale.  De  la  Coux  recommends :  Boil 
2  kilograms  of  oak  sawdust  for  an  hour,  at  least,  in  10  liters  of 
water,  then  add  3  kilograms  of  molasses.  A  kilogram  per  H.P. 
per  week  is  usually  sufficient. 

Solubility. — Schwackhofer  says  that  although  the  solubility 
of  solid  bodies  rises,  as  a  rule,  with  the  temperature,  the  following 
points  must  be  noted: 

1.  Solubility  increases  at  a  very  slow  rate,  the  behavior  of 
chloride  of  sodium  being  one  of  few  exceptions. 

2.  Solubility   is   proportional   to   the   increase  of  temperature 
(in  chloride  and  sulphate  of  potassium,  sulphate  of  magnesium, 
and  chloride  of  barium). 

3.  Solubility,  as  a  rule,  takes  place  at  a  quicker  rate  than  the 
temperature  rises  (e.g.,  nitrate  of  potassium,  nitrate  of  lead,  sugar, 
etc.). 


16 


BOILER-WATERS. 


4.  Solubility  sometimes  increases  with  increase  of  temperature 
up  to  a  certain  point,  but  diminishes  after  that  point  has  been 
reached  (sulphate  of  soda). 

5.  Finally,    solubility    sometimes    diminishes    with    increasing 
temperature  (sulphate  of  calcium). 

TABLE  OP  SOLUBILITIES. 
Quantity  of  substance  that  one  English  *  gallon  of  pure  water  can  dissolve. 


Substance. 

At  60°  F. 

At  212°  F. 

Alum  (potash  alum)      

0  95  Ibs. 

35  7  Ibs 

Aluminium  sulphate      

3.3      " 

89" 

Ammonium  oxalate  
Barium  chloride       

0.45    " 
3.5      " 

4.08  " 
6.0    " 

'  '        hydrate 

05      " 

10" 

Calcium  carbonate  1" 

2  5  grains 

1  5  grains 

c         chloride 

40  0  Ibs 

unlimited 

hydrate              

93  0  grains 

53  6  grains 

nitrate          

40  0  Ibs 

unlimited 

oxide  (lime)      

70  0  grains 

40  5  grains 

sulphate  J  

161  0      " 

152  0 

Ferrous  sulphate  

2.0  Ibs. 

17.8  Ibs. 

Magnesium  carbonate 

doubtful 

1  5  grains 

'  '           chloride  § 

20  0  Ibs 

40  0  Ibs 

'  '           hydrate                   

2  0  grains 

2  0  grains 

"           oxide               

14       " 

14      " 

ft          sulphate      

3  0  Ibs. 

13  0  Ibs. 

Sodium  biborate  (borax)   .     

0.4 

5.5    " 

carbonate  (dry) 

1  2 

45    " 

'  '        (crystals) 

4  1 

14  0     " 

chloride                          

3  5 

40" 

hydrate                      

6  1 

unlimited 

hyposulphite    

5  0 

20  0  Ibs 

1.2 

20.0    " 

"       sulphite        

2.5 

10.0    " 

11       sulphate 

1   1 

42" 

*  For  an  American  gallon  reduce  each  amount  by  16.7  per  cent, 
t  Insoluble  at  about  290°  F. 

J  Decomposes  at  boiler  temperatures  in  presence  of  alkaline  earths  or 
iron. 

§  Insoluble  at  302°  F. ,  equal  to  70  Ibs.  steam  pressure. 

Chemical  Analysis. — Many  times  when  we  are  away  from  the 
large  business  centres  it  is  desired  to  test  the  feed-water,  without 
employing  a  chemist,  to  find  out  just  what  chemicals  are  needed 
to  make  the  water  the  best  for  our  use. 

We  will  need  a  few  test-tubes  and  the  materials  called  for  on 
the  following  list. 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  17 


LIST    OF    CHEMICALS    AND    APPARATUS. 

i-pint  bottle  of  soap  solution  ; 
1  2-oz.  bottle  of  lime-water; 
1     "         "       "  chloride  of  barium; 
1     "         "       "  chloride  of  ammonium; 
1     "         "       "  ferrocyanide  of  potassium; 
1     "         "       "  hydrochloric  acid; 
1     "         "      "  nitric  acid; 
1     "         "      "  tincture  of  cochineal ; 
1     "         "       "  metallic  mercury; 
1     "         "      "  carbonate  of  ammonia  (crystals): 
1  1-oz.      "       "  oxalic  acid  (crystals); 
1     "         "      "  phosphate  of  soda  (crystals); 
Slips  of  blue  litmus  paper; 
"      "  red  litmus  paper; 
1  4-oz.  flat-bottom  clear-glass  bottle; 
A  wooden  test-tube  holder; 
1  small  spirit-lamp; 
\  pint  of  alcohol; 
A  test-tube  brush ; 
\  dozen  test-tubes. 

These  can  be  supplied  by  any  chemist. 

Take  any  clean  bottle  and  fill  it  with  the  water  you  desire  to 
test,  and  proceed  as  follows: 

To  see  whether  the  Water  is  Hard  or  Soft. — Take  a  clean  test- 
tube  and  pour  into  it  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  depth 
of  the  soap  solution ;  then  pour  into  it  three  or  four  drops,  only, 
of  the  water;  if  it  becomes  milky  or  curdy,  the  water  is  hard. 

To  see  if  the  Water  is  Alkaline  or  Acid. — Dip  into  a  test-tube 
half  filled  with  water  a  strip  of  red  litmus  paper;  if  it  does  not 
turn  blue,  the  water  is  not  alkaline.  Now  dip  a  strip  of  blue  litmus- 
paper  into  the  water;  if  it  does  not  turn  red,  the  water  is  not  acid- 

To  see  if  there  is  Carbonic  Acid. — Fill  about  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  of  water  in  a  test-tube  and  then  pour  in  just  as  much  lime- 
water;  if  there  is  carbonic  acid,  the  water  will  become  milky, 
and  on  adding  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  the  water  will  become 
clear  again. 


18 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Test  for  Sulphate  of  Lime  (Gypsum). — Fill  in  the  water  to  the 
depth  of  1^  inches  in  a  test-tube,  and  then  add  a  little  chloride 
of  barium;  if  a  white  precipitate  is  formed,  and  it  will  not  re- 
dissolve  when  you  add  a  little  nitric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime  is 
present. 

Test  for  Magnesia. — Fill  a  test-tube  about  one  fourth  or  one 
third  full  of  water;  hold  it  with  tube-holder,  and  bring  it  to  a 


FIG.  lb. — Test-tubes. 

boil  over  the  spirit-lamp;  then  add  the  point  of  a  knife  full  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  a  very  little  phosphate  of  soda;  if 
magnesia  is  present,  it  will  form  a  white  precipitate;  but  as 
it  may  not  do  so  at  once,  it  is  best  to  set  it  one  side  for  a  few 
moments. 

Test  for  Lead. — Fill  a  test-tube  one  fourth  full  of  the  water,  and 
add  one  or  two  drops,  only,  of  tincture  of  cochineal.      If  there  is 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  19 

only  a  trace  of  lead  in  the  water,  it  will  be  colored  blue  instead  of 
pink. 

Test  for  Copper. — Add  to  some  water  in  a  test-tube  a  little 
filing  dust  of  soft  iron,  and  a  few  drops  of  chloride  of  ammonium; 
a  blue  coloration  denotes  the  presence  of  copper. 

Test  for  Iron. — To  some  water  in  a  test-tube  add  one  drop  of 
f errocyanide :  it  will  color  it  blue  if  iron  is  present. 

Test  for  Sulphur  Combinations. — Pour  enough  mercury  into  a 
small  glass  bottle  with  a  flat  bottom  to  cover  it,  then  pour  in  water 
enough  to  fill  it  for  a  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  stopper  the 
bottle  and  let  it  stand  a  few  hours.  If  the  mercury  assumes  a 
darker  surface,  and  upon  shaking  separates  into  a  dark  powder, 
the  water  contains  sulphur  combinations. 

General  Instructions. — Remember  to  rinse  a  test-tube  out 
thoroughly  before  using  with  the  water  that  you  are  about  to 
test,  and  after  making  one  test  rinse  out  the  tube  thoroughly 
in  the  water,  using  the  tube-brush  if  necessary. 

The  soap  solution  can  be  prepared  by  putting  some  fine  scrap- 
ings of  white  curd  soap  (from  an  apothecary)  into  a  bottle  and 
pouring  alcohol  upon  it,  then  cork  the  bottle  and  set  it  one  side, 
shaking  it  often  for  a  few  days  until  it  is  all  dissolved,  then  add 
a  little  more  soap,  and  if  you  find  you  have  too'much,  add  a  little 
alcohol,  so  as  to  just  dissolve  it. 

Lime-water  can  be  prepared  by  slaking  a  small  lump  of  freshly 
burned  lime  with  half  its  weight  of  water  in  a  vegetable-dish; 
then  take  some  of  the  slaked  lime  and  put  it  in  a  bottle  with  some 
€old  distilled  water  (which  can  be  obtained  by  condensing  steam), 
and  shaking  it  occasionally;  then  let  the  undissolved  portion  sub- 
side, draw  off  most  of  the  clear  liquid,  and  keep  it  tightly  stoppered 
in  a  clean  bottle. 

Note. — Lime-water  shaken  up  with  linseed-oil  in  a  bottle  forms 
a  yellowish,  creamy  substance,  which  is  a  very  soothing  and  cooling 
application  in  case  of  severe  burns  and  scalds. 

Professor  Hayes,  in  speaking  of  the  deposits  in  tubes  and  flues, 
says: 

"  They  are  of  two  kinds,  both  of  which  are  capable  of  corroding 
the  iron  rapidly,  especially  when  the  boilers  are  heated  and  in 
operation.  The  most  common  one  consists  of  soot  (nearly  pure 
carbon)  saturated  with  pyroligneous  acid,  and  contains  a  large 


20  BOILER-WATERS. 

proportion  of  iron  if  the  deposit  is  an  old  one,  or  very  little  of  it 
if  it  has  been  recently  formed.  The  other  has  a  basis  of  soot  and 
fine  coal-ashes  (silicate  of  alumina)  filled  with  sulphur  acids,  and 
containing  more  or  less  iron,  the  quantity  depending  on  the  age 
of  the  deposit.  The  pyrol igneous  deposits  are  always  occasioned 
by  want  of  judgment  in  kindling  and  managing  the  fires.  The 
boilers  being  cold,  the  fires  are  generally  started  with  wood;  pyro- 
ligneous  acid  then  distils  over  into  the  tubes,  and,  collecting  with 
the  soot  already  there  from  the  first  kindling  fires,  forms  the  nu- 
cleus for  the  deposits,  which  soon  become  permanent  and  more 
dangerous  every  time  wood  is  used  in  the  furnace  afterwards. 

"  The  sulphuric-acid  deposits  derive  their  acids  from  the  coal 
used,  but  the  basis  material  holding  these  acids  is  at  first  occa- 
sioned by  cleaning  or  shaking  the  grates  soon  after  adding  fresh 
charges  of  coal.  Fine  ashes  are  thus  driven  into  the  flues  at  the 
opportune  moment  for  them  to  become  absorbents  for  the  sulphur 
compounds  distilling  from  the  coals,  and  the  corrosion  of  the  iron 
follows  rapidly  after  the  formation  of  these  deposits." 

It  is  well  to  remark  that  the  above-mentioned  deposits  form  a 
very  hard  incrustation,  though  of  but  little  thickness  generally, 
and  that  they  are  very  bad  conductors  of  heat;  therefore  their 
removal  is  necessary.* 

Testing  Feed-water. — In  Holland  factories  and  on  Holland 
steamers,  when  sodium  carbonate  is  employed  to  prevent  scale,  they 
use  f  what  is  known  as  the  "  Erfmann  Boiler-water  Controller  " 
to  test  the  water  and  tell  them  how  much  carbonate  of  soda  to 
put  in  the  boiler. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  cuts,  the  apparatus 
consists  of  two  graduated  vessels,  marked  respectively  1  and  2 
(Fig.  2  with  a  pipette  or  inner  tube),  and  a  base  containing  a  filter, 
fitted  in  a  case,  Fig.  3.  The  case  also  contains  three  drop-bottles 
(two  for  chemicals  and  one  for  boiler-water),  a  box  of  filter-papers, 
and  a  cleaning-brush,  compactly  fitted  for  use  on  steamships. 

On  opening  the  case  the  directions  for  use  are  found  inside  of 
the  cover.  By  following  these  failure  is  said  to  be  impossible. 
The  base  of  the  apparatus  slides  into  two  dovetail  catches  and  is 


*  From  Tower's  Guide-posts  on  the  Engineer's  Journey, 
t  U.  S.  Consular  Reports,  No.  1699. 


WATER  ANALYSIS. 


21 


easily  removable.     All  the  other  parts  are  provided  with  proper 
receptacles  to  insure  safety  and  to  minimize  the  risk  of  breakage. 

Bottle  1  contains  a  yellow  liquid,  and  bottle  2  a  colorless  liquid. 
The  bottles  are  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  flow  of  liquid  can 
be  regulated  to  a  nicety  by  the  finger-tip  on  the  air-inlet.  To 


FTG.  2. — Controlling  Apparatus. 

operate  the  apparatus  one  has  only  to  observe  the  directions,  as 
follows: 

Place  a  piece  of  filter-paper  in  the  filter  (above  the  perforated 
plate,  to  avoid  tearing).  Vessel  1  is  then  placed  in  position  with 
cock  closed,  and  filled  to  mark  A  with  hot  water  taken  from  the 
boiler.  The  yellow  liquid  is  then  added  to  the  height  of  mark  B 
and  the  contents  shaken  to  mix  them,  properly.  Next,  vessel  2 
is  placed  in  position,  with  inner  tube  P  inserted,  whereupon  all 
cocks  are  opened.  The  liquid  in  vessel  1  (which  has  become  thick) 
passes  through  the  filter  and  rises  into  vessel  2  in  a  clear  state. 


22 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Only  a  certain  quantity  can  rise,  and,  as  it  would  be  unsatisfactory 
to  leave  this  to  the  manipulator,  the  pipette,  or  inner  tube  P, 
is  used  to  obtain  the  exact  quantity.  When  the  fluid  has  reached 
the  maximum  level  in  vessel  2  (that  is,  when  it  has  risen  in  the 
pipette  P)  all  the  cocks  are  closed  and  the  pipette  and  its  contents 
removed.  The  remainder  is  the  proper  quantity  for  testing. 

Take  vessel  2,  and  from  bottle  2  add  the  colorless  liquid  drop 
by  drop  until  a  change  of  color  from  yellow  to  red  is  observed. 
When  the  vessel  is  shaken  this  red  tinge  will  disappear.  The 


FIG.  3. — Case  of  Apparatus. 

process  of  adding  drops  should,  however,  be  continued  until  the 
red  tinge  remains  permanent  after  shaking  the  mixture. 

Result. — The  level  at  which  the  reddish  fluid  stands  indicates 
on  the  graduated  scale  as  follows; 

A.  By  the  number  of  degrees  (or  lines)  below  zero  the  quantity 
in  ounces  of  soda-ash  required  to  be  added  daily  for  each  ton  of 
boiler  capacity,  each  line  indicating  one  ounce  per  ton. 

B.  By  the  number  of  degrees  above  zero  the  presence  already 
of  an  excess  of  soda.     In  this  event  the  quantity  of  soda  added 
daily  must  be  decreased  accordingly. 

C.  If  the  level  stands  at  zero,  then  the  water  is  not  corrosive 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  23 

or  liable  to  cause  incrustation  and  the  daily  additions  are  correct 
in  quantity.  By  boiler  capacity  is  understood  the  normal  quantity 
of  water  that  is  always  kept  in  the  boiler. 

How  to  Add  Soda. — The  first  time  the  boiler- water  is  tested 
or  examined  it  naturally  contains  a  great  deal  in  the  shape  of 
harmful  elements,  especially  if  the  boiler  has  been  in  use  for  a  long 
period.  If  when  tested  the  controller  indicates  5  ounces  per  ton 
(which  means  that  the  boiler-water  is  of  a  bad  nature),  then, 
if  dealing  with  a  boiler  which  holds  16  tons  of  water,  it  is  necessary 
to  put  into  the  boiler  at  once  16  times  5  ounces  (5  pounds)  of 
soda.  This  will  make  the  water  in  the  boiler  harmless. 

When  the  boiler  is  fed  continuously  it  may,  upon  testing,  be 
found  the  following  day  that  a  need  of  4  ounces  per  ton  is  indicated, 
which  means  that  since  the  5  pounds  were  added  such  a  quantity 
of  impure  elements  has  entered  the  boiler  that  16  times  4  ounces 
(4  pounds)  of  soda  is  required  to  neutralize  them.  Then  4  pounds 
is  added  at  once,  and  as  new  water  is  being  fed,  another  4  pounds 
should  be  added  during  the  time  the  boiler  is  in  use  that  day. 
The  latter  quantity,  however,  should  be  dissolved  in  a  tank  or 
bucket  to  enable  the  boiler  to  take  it  up  during  the  working-day. 
If  on  the  third  day  the  controller  indicates  zero,  the  adding  of 
4  pounds  of  soda  per  working-day  may  be  continued,  and  it  will  after 
that  be  sufficient  to  test  the  boiler-water  once  or  twice  a  week. 

As  stated  before,  the  quantity  -of  carbonate  of  soda  required 
for  one  work-day  is  dissolved  in  a  small  tank  or  bucket  which 
can  be  connected  by  means  of  a  cock  and  tube  to  the  feed-pump 
suction-pipe,  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  4),  regulating  it  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  take  up  the  contents  of  the  tank  gradually  during 
the  time  the  boiler  is  in  use  each  day.  When  several  boilers  used 
for  different  purposes  are  fed  by  one  pump,  then  the  soda  must 
be  added  direct  to  each  boiler.  This  may  be  done  by  means  of 
a  soda-cup,  as  in  B.  The  soda-cup  may,  however,  be  placed  right 
on  the  boiler  C. 

How  to  Blow  Off  Effectively. — The  soda-ash  having  caused  the 
impurities  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  in  the  form  of  a 
soft  mud,  this  may  be  removed  by  occasionally  blowing  off.  This 
should  be  done  when  the  boiler  is  not  in  use — for  instance,  in  the 
morning  before  firing  up,  and  even  then  with  the  blow-off 
cock  partially  opened.  It  is  not  necessary  to  blow  off  longer 


24 


BOILER-WATERS. 


than  is  required  to  lower  the  water-level  about  2  inches,  and  it  is 
useless  to  blow  off  under  high  pressure,  as  the  water  circulation 
would  keep  the  mud  stirring  and  only  a  small  portion  of  it  would 
be  removed.  Sea-going  steamers  can  therefore  only  rarely  blow 
off;  but,  owing  to  the  use  of  condensers,  the  boilers  on  such  steamers 
do  not  require  it  so  frequently.  In  their  case  corrosion  is  feared 
more  than  incrustation. 


FIG.  4.— Apparatus  attached  to  Boiler. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  apparatus  is  a  remarkable  labor-saver, 
and  the  fact  that  the  Holland-American  Steamship  Company  of 
Rotterdam,  Holland,  used  to  employ  thirty  men  to  clean  out  the 
boilers  after  every  home  trip  of  one  of  their  steamers  across  the 
Atlantic,  besides  laying  up  their  steamers  once  in  three  years 
for  two  months  for  a  thorough  cleaning  out,  while  at  present,  with 
the  aid  of  the  apparatus  described,  the  boilers  are  cleaned  out  by 
means  of  a  hose  in  a  couple  of  hours,  seems  to  warrant  the  claim. 

Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory  Method  for  Calculation  of 
Chemicals  Required  for  Water-softening,  or  Neutralization  of 
Acid  Waters.* — Basis:  Add  one  equivalent  of  lime  for  free  carbon 

*  This  and  Archbutt's  Method  on  the  next  page  are  given  here  by  per- 
mission of  James  O.  Handy,  Chief  Chemist  of  the  Pittsburgh  Testing  Labora- 
tory, and  are  from  a  paper  by  him  read  before  the  Engineers'  Society  of 
Western  Pennsylvania. 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  25 

dioxide,  insoluble  lime,  insoluble  magnesia,  soluble  magnesia,  acid 
iron  salts,  and  free  acid.  Insoluble  magnesia  requires  two  equiva- 
lents of  lime. 

Add  soda  enough  for  soluble  lime  and  soluble  magnesia  and  free 
acid,  including  acid  iron  salts. 

Iron  present  as  carbonate  is  removed  by  the  addition  of  an 
equivalent  of  lime. 

Parts  per  100,000.  Pounds  for  1000  U  S.  Gallons. 

CaO,  insoluble  (i.e.,  as  carbonate)  j  X  .  0925  =  commercial  lime,  90%  CaO 
MgO,  insoluble  (i.e.,  as  carbonate)  /  X. 26     =          "  "       "       " 

MgO,  soluble  (i.e.,  as  sulphate)       -> 

MgO,  soluble  (i.e.,  as  chloride)         ix.13     =          "  "       "       " 

MgO,  soluble  (i.e.,  as  nitrate)          J 
Acid,  free  (calculated  as  H2SO4)         X.053   =          "  "       "       " 

CO2,  free.  .  . X.118   =          "  "       "       " 

Fe  (as  carbonate) X  .093   =          "  "       "       " 

CaO,  soluble X  .  166   =  Soda-ash,  95%  Na2CO3 

MgO,  soluble X.233=        "  " 

Acid,  free X  .095   =        "  "          " 

At  15°  C.,  saturated  lime-water  =  1 . 3  g.  per  liter. 
At  15°  C.,  saturated  lime-water  =  1 . 083  Ibs.  per  100  gallons. 
The  solubility  of  lime  in  water  varies  slightly. 

ARCHBUTT'S  METHOD  FOR  CALCULATION  OF  CHEMICALS  REQUIRED 
FOR  WATER-SOFTENING.* — As  much  sodium  carbonate  is  dissolved 
n  a  little  water  as  is  equivalent  to  the  total  lime  and  magnesia,  de- 
ducting as  much  as  is  equivalent  to  the  total  alkalinity  of  the  water. 

Lime-water  enough  is  added  to  give  a  straw-color  with  silver 
nitrate,  and  then  as  much  more  as  is  equivalent  to  the  magnesia 
present.  This  would  apparently  lead  to  the  same  results  as  would 
be  obtained  by  our  method  of  calculation.  We  have  not  tested  it. 

Returning  to  a  further  consideration  of  the  method  in  which  it 
is  best  to  state  the  results  of  chemical  analyses  of  water,  it  may 
be  admitted  that  the  simple  statement  of  basic  and  acid  radicals 
actually  found  will  be  safest  and  wisest  in  some  cases. 

In  a  very  great  number  of  instances,  however,  the  client  desires 
to  have  the  analysis  show  the  most  probable  combination  of  bases 
and  acids.  He  wishes  to  know  what  salts  are  in  the  water,  so 
that  its  medicinal  or  technical  uses  may  be  intelligently  under- 
stood. 

*  See  foot-note  p.  24. 


26  BOILER-WATERS. 

For  this  reason  it  is  desirable  that  chemists  should  get  together 
and  agree  upon  a  method  of  expressing  results. 

Cairns,  "  Quantitative  Analysis,"  1888,  p.  182,  follows  this 
plan,  which  he  says  meets  most  cases:  Combine  the  sodium  with 
chlorine  as  sodium  chloride,  and  the  potassium  with  sulphuric  acid 
as  potassium  sulphate.  Should  there  be  any  more  sodium  than 
chlorine,  and  more  sulphuric  acid  than  is  required  by  potassium, 
combine  the  excess  with  sodium,  and  if  there  is  more  sodium  left, 
combine  it  with  carbonic  acid. 

Should  there  be  more  than  enough  sulphuric  acid  for  both  sodium 
and  potassium,  combine  excess  first  with  calcium  as  calcium  sul- 
phate, and  next  with  magnesia  as  magnesium  sulphate. 

If  chlorine  is  more  than  enough  to  satisfy  sodium,  combine  it 
with  potassium  if  sulphuric  acid  was  not  sufficient.  If  chlorine 
is  still  in  excess,  combine  it  with  magnesium  and  then  with  calcium. 
Calculate  all  calcium  and  magnesium,  not  combined  with  chlorine, 
and  sulphuric  acid,  as  carbonates. 

This  method  may  be  criticised  in  that  it  makes  no  provision  for 
nitric  acid  if  present,  and  that  it  does  not  take  advantage  of  the 
absolute  knowledge  which  may  be  gained  by  analysis,  as  to  the 
amounts  of  calcium  and  magnesium  present  as  carbonates.  The 
method  is  based  on  Fresenius's  earlier  recommendations.  In  the 
latest  *  edition  of  Fresenius  the  following  example  of  a  water- 
analysis  calculation  is  given.  Mr.  Handy  determines  the  calcium 
precipitated  by  boiling,  and  calculates  it  to  carbonate.  Beyond 
that  he  attempts  to  combine  acids  and  bases  according  to  relative 
affinities  and  solubilities: 

1.  Barium  calculated  to  sulphate  of  barium. 

2.  Strontium  calculated  to  sulphate  of  strontium. 

3.  Residual  sulphuric  acid  calculated  to  calcium  sulphate. 

4.  Bromine  calculated  to  magnesium  bromide. 

5.  Iodine  calculated  to  magnesium  iodide. 

6.  Calcium    not    precipitated   by    boiling,   and   not   already 
figured  to  sulphate,  is  calculated  to  chloride  of  calcium. 

7.  Potassium  calculated  to  chloride  of  potassium. 

8.  Lithium  calculated  to  chloride  of  lithium. 

*  "Traite  de  1' Analyse  Quantitative,"  R.  Fresenius,  7th  French  from  6th 
German  edition,  1900. 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  27 

9.  Ammonia  calculated  to  chloride  of  ammonium. 

10.  Sodium  calculated  to  chloride  of  sodium. 

11.  Residual  chlorine  calculated  to  magnesium  chloride. 

12.  Phosphoric  anhydride  calculated  to  phosphate  of  calcium. 

13.  The  calcium  found  in  the  precipitate  on  boiling,  minus  the 
amount  required  by  phosphoric  acid,  is  calculated  to  carbonate. 

14.  The  magnesium  not  calculated  to  bromide,  iodide,  or  chlo- 
ride is  figured  to  carbonate. 

15.  The  iron  found  is  calculated  to  carbonate. 

16.  The  manganese  found  is  calculated  to  carbonate. 

17.  The  silica  found  is  calculated  as  silica. 

18.  The  free  carbonic  acid  is  calculated  by  deducting  from  the 
total  the  amount  required  by  the  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron  to  form 
bicarbonates.     In  alkaline  waters  the  phosphoric  acid  is  calculated 
to  phosphate  of  alumina.     In  saline  waters  it  is  figured  as  phos- 
phate of  calcium. 

The  scheme  given  above  was  used  in  connection  with  a  mineral- 
water  analysis.  No  provision  is  made  for  nitric  anhydride. 

FRESENIUS'S  GENERAL  RULE  FOR  WATER-ANALYSIS  CALCULA- 
TION.— This  is  supposed  to  apply  to  technical  analyses  where  the 
rarer  elements  are  not  determined,  and  is  given  in  the  1900  edtion. 

If  the  water  is  alkaline,  all  of  the  calcium  and  magnesium  present 
are  calculated  as  carbonates.  Otherwise  proceed  as  follows: 

1.  Combine  all  chlorine  with  sodium. 

2.  Combine  excess  chlorine  with  calcium. 

3.  Combine  sulphuric  acid  with  calcium. 

4.  Combine  nitric  acid  with  ammonium,  and  then  with  calcium 
or  magnesium,  if  necessary. 

5.  The  remaining  lime  and  magnesia  are  calculated  as  carbonates. 
This  rule  is  very  incomplete,  in  that  it  does  not  provide  for  the 

disposal  of  the  sodium  which  might  be  in  excess  of  the  chlorine. 
It  is  also  silent  on  the  disposition  of  sulphuric  acid  in  excess  of 
the  amount  required  by  calcium,  and  of  nitric  acid  in  excess  of 
the  amounts  required  by  the  bases  enumerated.  The  first  illus- 
tration is  much  more  complete. 

There  seems  to  be  a  feeling  among  the  followers  of  Fresenius 
that  in  general  the  sodium  and  potassium  should  be  the  first  bases 
to  be  provided  for,  and  they  are  generally  given  the  chlorine  or 
sulphuric  acid,  or  both  if  necessary. 


28 


BOILER-WATERS. 


The  method  of  analysis  used  in  the  Kennicott  laboratories  is 
shown  on  a  chart  recently  sent  out  for  criticism,  and  differs  from 
plans  in  general  use,  in  that  it  provides  for  the  determination  of 
the  amount  of  calcium  sulphate  actually  present.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  alcohol  of  0.92  specific  gravity  as  a  solvent 
for  treating  the  dry  residue.  Silica,  carbonates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, and  sulphate  of  lime  are  insoluble  in  this  menstruum.  They 
are  afterwards  separated,  the  determination  of  sulphuric  anhydride 
being  the  index  to  the  amount  of  calcium  present  as  sulphate. 

This  removes  one  more  arbitrary  step  from  water-analysis  cal- 
culation, but  it  is  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  some  time  and 
considerable  alcohol.  It  does  not  affect  water-softening  calcula- 
tions at  all,  but  is  designed  to  give  certain  information  regarding 
the  most  important  scale-forming  compound  which  occurs  in 
waters.  The  actual  value  of  the  alcohol  used  for  each  analysis 
would  be  from  six  to  ten  cents,  which  is  not  so  serious  a  matter 
as  would  at  first  appear. 

The  fact  that  three  hours  are  required  for  the  extraction  indi- 
cates that  sulphate  of  soda  and  the  other  soluble  salts  do  not 
dissolve  rapidly,  and  errors  due  to  incomplete  extraction  would 
have  to  be  guarded  against  by  tests,  as  suggested. 

ORDER  IN  WHICH  BASES  ARE  APPORTIONED  TO  ACIDS  BY  SEVERAL 

ANALYSTS. 

Nitric  Acid. 


Cairns     

E 

1. 
2. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 
Potassium 
Sodium 

Chlorine. 

Sodium 
Potassium 

Fresenius            .... 

3. 
4. 
1. 
2. 

Calcium 
Magnesium 
Barium 
Strontium 

Magnesium 
Calcium 
Calcium 
Potassium 

3. 
4. 

Calcium 

Sodium 
Magnesium 

Pittsburgh  Testing 
Laboratory 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Calcium 
Magnesium 
Sodium 

Calcium 
Magnesium 
Sodium 

Kennicott  

.4. 
1. 
2. 
.3. 

Potassium 
Calcium  * 
Magnesium  f 
Sodium 

Potassium 
Calcium 
Magnesium 
Sodium 

Calcium 
Magnesium 
Sodium 
Potassium 


*  Calcium  calculated  from  sulphate  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
t  Magnesium  figured  to  sulphate  is  the  amount  left  over  after  figuring 
the  magnesium  combined  with  chlorine. 


WATER  ANALYSIS. 


29 


The  scheme  makes  no  provision  for  calculation  of  nitrates,  but 
it  seems  to  the  writer  to  be  commendable  in  other  respects.  If 
the  plan  could  be  elaborated  further  to  allow  discrimination  between 
magnesium  chloride,  sulphate,  and  nitrate,  nothing  would  be  left 
to  the  analyst's  judgment.  This,  however,  is  hardly  to  be  hoped 
for,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  the  necessarily  arbitrary 
calculations  all  made  by  the  same  method. 

For  technical  work  direct  determinations  of  sodium  and  potas- 
sium are  not  usually  made.  The  residual  acids  not  required  for 
the  bases  found  are  calculated  to  sodium  salts. 

Analysis  of  Water. — The  following  table  gives  the  results  of 
tests  made  by  Prof.  C.  F.  Chandler  of  waters  along  the  line  of  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad.  (The  figures  represent  grains  per 
U.  S.  gallon.) 


Source. 

Corroding 
Matter. 

Incrusting 
Matter. 

Organic 
Matter. 

Total 
Solids. 

Syracuse  Onondaga  Creek 

3  44 

22   58 

0  34 

26  36 

'  '          hydrant 

0  38 

27  55 

trace 

27  93 

Memphis        .          ... 

0  91 

21  68 

0  18 

22  77 

Jordan         

1  71 

11  47 

0  06 

13  24 

Port  Byron     

1  08 

7  17 

1  28 

9  53 

Savannah          

1  35 

17  63 

1  52 

20  50 

Clyde,  spring     

0  77 

14  64 

2  16 

17  58 

'  '       river  

2  10 

14.30 

1  88 

18  28 

Lyons     

1  03 

11.07 

1  00 

13  10 

Newark      

1.17 

18.73 

2.16 

22  07 

Palmyra  

1.43 

33.39 

1.46 

36  28 

Macedon  Swamp  

0.71 

10.53 

0  80 

12  04 

Fairport     

3.19 

15.06 

1.14 

19  39 

Rochester  N    Street  well 

7  31 

33  26 

1  60 

42  17 

"           Genesee  'River 

1  18 

10  85 

1  64 

13  67 

"           canal,  roundhouse.  .  . 

1.11 

8.80 

1.24 

11.15 

30 


BOILER-WATERS. 


WATERS  AT  VARIOUS  POINTS  IN  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES, 

ANALYZED  BY  S.  DANA  HAYES. 

(Grams  per  one  U.  S.  gallon.) 


No. 

Source. 

Mineral 
Matter. 

Organic 
Matter. 

Total 
Solids. 

1 

MAINE. 
Pure  spring,  near  Auburn  

0   85 

0    13 

0  98 

2 

•Spring  on  (Jape  Elizabeth 

7  40 

2   21 

9  61 

3 

Wells  in  Portland  (av   of  four) 

13  35 

5  13 

18  48 

4 
5 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
Merrimac  River,  at  Manchester  (drainage)  .  . 
Merrimac  River  at  .Lowell   Mass 

2.96 
1  80 

2.60 
0  11 

5.56 
1  91 

6 

7 

Massabeesic  Lake,  near  Manchester  
Hotel  well  on  Rye  Beach                             .  . 

1.16 
6  08 

1.66 
2  43 

2.82 
8  51 

8 
9 
10 

VERMONT. 
Mineral  Springs,  near  St.  Albans  (av  of  seven' 
at  Guilford  (chalybeate)   .     . 
"             "        at  Brunswick               

15.24 
25.27 

77  79 

1.25 
1.65 
2  33 

16.49 
26.92 
80  12 

11 

"            "        at  Danby                  

7.19 

0  91 

8  10 

12 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Cochituate   Boston    February    1871       

2  37 

0  83 

3  20 

13 

Mystic  Charlestown    February    1871      

3  96 

1.72 

5  68 

14 

Jamaica  Pond,  Roxbury,  18(  7           

2.41 

1.36 

3.77 

15 

Connecticut  River,  at  Holyoke  

1.81 

1.39 

3.20 

16 

Saugus  River   Lynn 

3  12 

2  40 

5  52 

17 

Flax  Pond    Lynn  (drainage) 

2  24 

1  84 

4  08 

18 

Horn  Pond    VVoburn 

3  85 

1  59 

5  44 

19 

Locomotive  supply  Taurton                     .... 

4  37 

2  03 

6  40 

20 

Artesian  well   Dedhf)^'                            

4  08 

1.11 

5.19 

21 

Wells  in  Woburn  (av   '  t  lour)           

51  .  52 

4  60 

56.12 

99 

W^ells  in  Lynn  (av  of  six)                  

19.27 

4.23 

23.50 

23 
24 

Old  artesian  well,  Boston  (reopened  1871)    .  . 
Well  on  Cape  Cod 

54.35 
10  01 

1.85 
2  41 

56.20 
12  42 

25 

B^ewerv  spring   Boston 

13  68 

1  68 

15  36 

Mr.  J.  T.  Fennell  says,  leaving  Philadelphia,  the  farther  west 
you  go  the  worse  boiler- water  gets.  Pittsburg  water  is  rather  bad; 
Columbus,  0.,  is  worse,  but  the  worst  he  has  found  is  at  Junction 
City,  Kan.  At  Newton,  Kan.,  the  water  is  very  good,  the  boilers 
looking  as  though  newly  whitewashed,  which  is  about  as  thick 
as  scale  gets  at  this  place. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  water  is  bad — makes  lots  of  scale— while 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  water  is  excellent,  where  light  scale  and  some  red 
mud  is  found  when  examining  boilers. 


WATER  ANALYSIS.  31 

Artesian  well-water  at  Atlantic  City  and  Camden,  N.  J.,  is 
good,  especially  at  Camden,  where  there  are  some  boilers,  installed 
in  1868,  which  are  nearly  as  good  as  when  new  as  far  as  appear- 
ances are  concerned.  These  boilers  are  well  cared  for  and  are 
never  blown  out  while  they  are  hot. 

The  well-water  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  very  bad  for  boilers, 
while  at  Brandy  wine  Summit,  Pa.,  it  is  fairly  good  and  leaves  a 
chalk-like  deposit. 

ANALYSIS  OP  SEA-WATER. 
(Grains  per  gallon.) 

Carbonate  of  lime 9 . 75  grains 

-Sulphate  of  lime 114.38      " 

il         "  magnesium 134 .86      " 

Chloride  of  "          244.46      " 

"  sodium.  .  .  1706.00      " 


Total 2209.47  grains 

Sea-water,  according  to  one  authority,  contains  from  32  to  38 
parts  of  salt,  or  sodium  chloride,  per  1000  parts  of  water. 

WATER  ANALYSIS. 

Mineral  water  from  a  well  about  60  feet  deep  at  Carrizo  Springs, 
Texas,  has  been  analyzed  with  these  results  in  grains  per  U.  S. 
gallon: 

Total  mineral  matter. 1306  18 

Magnesium  sulphate 231 . 00 

Sodium  sulphate 390  00 

' '       chloride 467 . 00 

"       bicarbonate 80 . 30 

Calcium 130 . 40 

Potassium  chloride 5 . 50 

Soluble  silica 0.71 


32 


BOILER- WATERS. 

TABLE  OF  WATER  ANALYSES. 
Grains  per  U.  S.  Gallon  of  231  Cubic  Inches. 


Where  From. 

Lime  and 
Magnesia 
Carbonates. 

Lime  and 
Magnesia 
Sulphates. 

Sodium 
Chloride 
(Salt). 

Iron  Oxide, 
Carb.Sulph., 
etc. 

Volatile  and 
Organic 
Matter. 

Total  Solids  in 
Grains. 

Buffalo   N    Y    Lake  Erie 

5  66 

3  32 

0   58 

0    18 

9   74 

Pittsburgh,  Allegheny  River. 
"           Monongahela  River.  . 
"           Pa.,  artesian  well.    .. 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin  River  

0.37 
1.06 
23.45 
6  23 

3.78 
5.12 
5.71 
4  67 

0.58 
0.64 
18.41 
1.76 

0.37 
0.78 
1  04 
20  14 

1.50 
3.20 
0.82 
6  50 

6.60 
10.80 
49.43 
39  30 

Galveston  Texas  1 

13  68 

13  52 

326  64 

Trace 

Trace 

353  84 

ii              it     '  2 

21   79 

99  15 

398  99 

4  00 

453  95 

Columbus  Ohio 

20  76 

11   74 

7  02 

0  58 

6  50 

46  60 

Washington,  D.  C.,  city  supply.  . 
Baltimore  Md    city  supply 

2.87 
2  77 

3.27 
0  65 

Trace 
Trace 

0.36 
0  10 

2.10 
3  80 

8.60 
7  30 

Sioux  City  la    city  supply 

19  76 

1   24 

1  17 

1  03 

4  40 

27  60 

Los  Angeles  Cal    1         

10  12 

5  84 

3  51 

2  63 

4  10 

26  20 

if                <  <                  <  I          n 

3  72 

12  59 

0  76 

6  00 

23  07 

Bay  City,  Michigan,  Bay  
River. 
Cincinnati   Ohio  River  

8.47 
4.84 
3  88 

10.36 
33.66 
0  78 

20.48 
126.78 
1  79 

1.15 
3.00 

8.74 
10.92 
Trace 

49.20 
179.20 
6.73 

Watertown   Conn 

1  47 

4  51 

1  76 

Trace 

1  78 

9  52 

Fort  Wayne  Ind 

8  78 

6  22 

3  51 

1  59 

10  98 

31  08 

Wilmington   Del          

10  04 

6  02 

4  29 

8  48 

6  17 

35  00 

Wichita   Kansas  

14  14 

25  91 

24  34 

2  00 

66  39 

Springfield   111     1     

12  99 

7  40 

1   97 

2  19 

8  62 

33  17 

"            "     2  

5  47 

4  31 

1  56 

4  28 

5  83 

21   45 

Hillsboro,  111  

14  56 

2  97 

2  39 

1  63 

Trace 

21.55 

Pueblo  Colo 

4  32 

16  15 

1   20 

1  97 

5  12 

28  76 

Long  Island  City,  L.  I  
Mississippi     River     above    Mis- 
souri River  

4.0 
8  24 

28.0 
1  02 

16.0 
0  50 

1.0 
5  25 

39.0 
15  01 

Mississippi    River  below  mouth 
of  Missouri  River        

10  64 

7  41 

1  36 

1  22 

15  86 

36.49 

Mississippi   River  at  St.   Louis, 
W  W 

9  64 

6  94 

1  54 

1   57 

9  85 

29  54 

Hudson    River    above    Pough- 
keepsie   NY        

1  06 

0  11 

10  76 

0  77 

12  70 

Croton     River    above     Croton 
Dam,  NY  

4  57 

0  16 

0  40 

1  92 

0  67 

7.72 

Croton  River  water  from  service- 
pipes  in  New  York  City  
Schuylkill    River    above  Phila- 
delphia Pa  

2.36 
2  16 

0  29 

0  49 

1.36 
1  30 

3.72 
4  24 

WATER  ANALYSIS. 


33 


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34 


BOILER-WATERS. 


WATER  ANALYSES. 

[W.  B.  Scaife  &  Sons  Co.] 


Impurities,  Expressed  in  Grains, 
per  U  S.  Gallon 
(about  58,000  Grains). 

Carbonates. 

Sulphates 
and  Other 
Solids. 

Total 
Solids. 

9.01 

19.79 

28.80 

Albany  N   Y   (average,  3  wells)  

48.69 

Ashtabula  Ohio             

5.65 

3.95 

9.60 

9.80 

13.68 

23.48 

Baltimore  Md   (city  supply)  

2.77 

4.53 

7.30 

Bay  City  Mich    (bay)                          

8.47 

40  73 

49.20 

"      "        "      (river} 

4.84 

173.36 

179.20 

Beaufort  S  C                                

31.40 

23.20 

54.60 

Bethlehem   Pa                    

1.18 

4.22 

5.40 

Benwood  W   Va       

3.64 

9.37 

13.01 

3.62 

3.08 

6.70 

Boston  Mass   (average  3  wells)           ... 

44  46 

Boulder  Col          

5.65 

7.05 

12.70 

Bridgeport  Conn                         

3  90 

16  26 

20  16 

Brooklyn   N   Y   (average  well)        

48  83 

Buffalo  N   Y   (Lake  Erie)           

5.66 

4.08 

9  74 

«  '            <  '      (river)          

6.74 

6.78 

13.52 

33.71 

134.12 

167.83 

Canton  Ohio                  

1.85 

26.05 

27.90 

Chicago  Ills   (average   5  wells)     •  .        ... 

32  16 

55  92 

88  08 

Chicago  Heights   Ills                       

1  39 

0  81 

2  20 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  (Ohio  River).  .  .   

3.88 

3.85 

6.73 

Clarksville  Xenn                        

12  48 

11  77 

24.25 

20.76 

25.84 

46.60 

Connecticut  River  (above  Springfield)  
Dallas  Tex           

1.57 
19.82 

4.44 
53.48 

6.01 
73.30 

Dayton  Ohio  (well)                      

56  50 

Decatur   Ills                                    

34  48  • 

4  27 

38  75 

Detroit  Mich   (well)         

116  46 

8  39 

9  51 

17  90 

1.45 

7.05 

8.50 

17.61 

4.73 

22.34 

Ensley   Ala   (village  creek)                

9  43 

8  42 

17  83 

Fall  River   Mass    (average   17  wells)   

36  12 

16  15 

28  70 

44.85 

«        «          '  '     (well)       

14  37 

47  43 

61.80 

Galveston  Tex           

22.79 

381  .  20 

403  .  99 

Orand  Rapids   Mich   (Grand  River) 

9  02 

22  22 

31  24 

Hamilton   Ontario                                   .        .  . 

6  02 

5  18 

11  20 

Harrisburg   Pa                                   

12.13  . 

Hartford  Conn    (average,  5  wells)   

47.21 

Hartford  City,  Ind     

16.11 

22.45 

38.56 

Harvey,  Ills          

14.85 

71.12 

85.97 

Hillsboro   Ills 

14  56 

6  99 

21  55 

Hudson  River  (above  Poughkeepsie).  
Hull,  Fla         

3.19 
1.38 

9.51 

6.82 

12.70 
8.20 

Indianapolis   Ind    (creek) 

2  17 

0  33 

2  50 

"               "     (well)       

1  57 

36  85 

38  42 

Ivorydale   Ohio          

16.90 

3.68 

20  58 

Joliet,  Ills   (well)  

15.67 

39.91 

55.58 

WATER  ANALYSIS. 
WATER  ANALYSES — Continued. 


Impurities,  Expressed  in  Grains, 
per  U   S-  Gallon 
(about  58,000  Grains). 

Carbonates. 

Sulphates 
and  Other 
Solids. 

Joplin,  Mo,        

9  09 

7  71 

Junction  City,  Kans  ,  

20  82 

9  43 

Kansas  City,  Mo  

10  50 

5  20 

Kent,  Ohio  

9  86 

4  34 

Lebanon,  Pa  

3  60 

3  59 

Lockport,  N   Y 

6  61 

5  60 

Long  Island  City,  N   Y  

5  40 

33  90 

Lorain   Ohio,  Black  River 

4  86 

9  86 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

3  72 

19  35 

Lowell,  Mass,  (average,  15  wells)  

Lynn  Mass   (Saugus  River) 

1  81 

4  81 

"          '  '      (average,  2  wells)  

Massillon,  Ohio  (river-water)  

Milwaukee  Wis  (lake-  water) 

4  50 

3  67 

"              "     (Wisconsin  River)  

6.23 

33  07 

Mississippi  River  (above  Missouri  River)  .  .  . 
"      (below        "            "•")... 
Missouri  River  (above  mouth)  

8.24 
9.64 
10  07 

7.77 
19.90 
25  42 

Muncie,  Ind          

20  30 

14  20 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.  (Missouri  River)  

17  85 

39  84 

Newark,  N  J      

19  82 

26  22 

New  York  N  Y   (city  supply) 

2  36 

1  36 

"        '  '          "       (average,  4  wells)  

Norfolk,  Va  

1  14 

9  76 

Omaha  Neb    (well)             

14  43 

59  22 

Oswego  N  Y   (well)             .    .    . 

10  93 

Passaic  N  J                           

5  70 

55  20 

Paterson,  N  J            

4  88 

8  66 

Piqua,  Ohio  

18  80 

6  64 

Pittsburgh,  Pa   (Allegheny  River)    

1  56 

10  51 

'    (Monongahela  River)  

1  08 

9  72 

'  '             "    (average  well) 

23  70 

18  98 

Plainfield  N  J 

4  06 

4  64 

Providence,  R.  I.  (average,  24  wells)  

Pueblo  Col 

4  32 

24  44 

Pulaski,  Va   (city  supply) 

2  98 

2  99 

'  '    (well) 

18  40 

3  23 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  (average,  3  wells)  
St  Louis,  Mo   (average,  3  wells)         .    . 

7.32 

16  82 

14.68 
38  15 

San  Antonio,  Tex  

18  11 

12  79 

Sandusky,  Ohio  

4  91 

12  96 

Schuylkill  River  (above  Philadelphia)  .  .    .  . 

2  16 

2  08 

Sharpsburg,  Pa.  (well-water)  

34  62 

143  29 

Sharpsville,  Pa  

1  99 

2  92 

Sheboygan   Mich 

14  44 

8  64 

Sherman   Tex 

4  56 

8  94 

Sioux  City,  iDwa 

15  31 

42  41 

Springfield,  Ills 

12  12 

44  25 

Mass   (Mill  River) 

2  68 

5  54 

"             "     (average,  4  wells)  

Stockton,  Cal   (well)     . 

12  95 

80  11 

Streator,  Ills     .            

8  62 

21  77 

Total 

Solids. 


16.80 
30.25 
15.70 
14.20 

7.19 
12.21 
39.30 
14.72 
23.07 
39.33 

6.62 
34.19 
35.28 

8.17 
39.30 
15.01 
29.54 
35.49 
34.50 
47.69 
46.04 

3.72 
58.07 
10.90 
73.65 
52.10 
60.90 
13.54 
25.44 
12.07 
10.80 
42.68 

8.70 
33.02 
28.76 

5.97 
21.63 
22.00 
54.97 
31.90 
17  87 

4.24 
177.91 

4.91 
23.08 
13.50 
57.72 
56.37 

8.14 
13.08 
93.06 
30.39 


36 


BOILER-WATERS. 


WATER  ANALYSES — Continued. 


Impurities,  Expressed  in  Grains, 
per  U    S.  Gallon 
(about  58,000  Grams). 

Carbonates. 

Sulphates 
and  Other 
Solids. 

Total 
Solids. 

Sturgis,  Mich.           

15  00 

8    13 

23  13 

Sumter,  S  C  

0  87 

8   33 

9  20 

Tampa,  Fla 

14  66 

8  64 

23  30 

Taunton,  Mass    (average,  2  wells) 

33  54 

Terre  Haute,  Ind           ....            .    . 

11  89 

8  25 

20  14 

Tonawanda,  N    Y        

6  16 

3  54 

9  70 

Trenton,  N   J  

2  06 

3  38 

5  44 

Tyrone,  Pa       

0  93 

10.96 

11  89 

Warners,  N.  Y    (canal-water)   
'  '             '  '      (creek-water)          .    . 

8.28 
13  76 

12.56 
35  90 

20.84 
49  68 

Warsaw  NY              

6  98 

67  29 

74  27 

Washington,  D  C   (city  supply)     

2  87 

5  73 

8  60 

Watertown,  Conn     

1  47 

8  05 

9  52 

West  Pullman   Ills 

11  89 

5  59 

17  48 

Wichita,  Kans        

14.14 

42  25 

66.39 

Wilmington   Del                    

6  90 

19  60 

26  50 

Woburn   Mass    (average,  4  wells)   

56  12 

Youngstown   Ohio         

4  64 

14  28 

14  90 

ANALYSES  IN  PARTS  PER  100,000    OF    WATERS    GIVING   BAD    RESULTS 
FOR   STEAM    PURPOSES.* 


-i 

•35  M 

c 

0)  G 

11 

i 

| 

<~  a 
o  o 

"oS 

.S 

i 

® 

1 

11 

11 

i 

| 

< 

1 

"8 

H 

11 

•£  a 

S 

3 

a 

.2 
c 

03 

• 

3 

is 

H 

3 

OQ 

1 

| 

I 

| 

S 
o 

Feed-water 

giving 

Scales  2.5-3.... 

225 

19 

450 

85 

219 

293 

Fischer 

'      3  atmos  . 

88 

3 

147 

22 

121 

59 

•  ' 

1     3.5  "      . 

;r'ce 

0 

46 

9 

40 

. 

.Se 

eTa 

ble 

D  of 

'  ' 

'      3.5  il      . 

63 

39 

155 

68 

89 

91 

Boil 

erS 

cales* 

" 

'     5      "      . 

46 

0 

244 

32 

232 

9 

" 

'      5-6  "      . 

tr'ce 

0 

599 

81 

306 

770 

•  ' 

Coal-mine  wat'r 

110 

25 

119 

39 

890 

590 

780 

30 

640 

A  E.  Hunt 

Salt-well  

151 

38 

1.90 

48 

360 

990 

38 

21 

30 

13.10 

' 

Spring  

75 

89 

95 

120 

310 

21 

75 

10 

80 

36 

t 

Monongahela 

River  t  

130 

21 

161 

33 

210 

38 

70 

1 

do  

80 

70 

94 

81 

219 

210 

90 

1 

do  

32 

82 

61 

1.04 

28 

1.90 

38 

i 

Allegheny  rive 
near  Oil-wr'k 

3C 

50 

41 

68 

890 

42 

23 

" 

*A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  17,  p.  353. 

t  Taken  near  discharge-pipes  from  large  manufacturing  establishments. 


WATER  ANALYSIS. 


37 


How  much  of  scale-forming  impurities  may  be  contained  in  a 
feed-water,  and  it  still  be  called  good,  depends  largely  on  what  the 
impurities  are. 

Silvester  has  given  us  a  classification  of  this  kind: 

"Less  than  8  grains  of    incrusting  solids  per  gallon 
—carbonate    of   lime,    carbonate    of    magnesia, 

sulphate  of  lime,  chloride  of  magnesia,  etc Good 

8  to  15  grains  per  gallon Fair 

15  to  20      "        "        "       Poor 

20  to  30      "        "        " Bad 

30  to  40      "        "        "     .\ Very  bad" 

TROUBLES  DUE  TO  WATER:   PREVENTION  AND  CURE. 

Trouble.  Cause.  Cure. 

r  Sediment,  mud,  clay,  etc.  {  Filtration. 
I  Blowing-off. 


Incrustation 


Corrosion 


Priming 


Readily  soluble  salts. 


Blowing-off. 


r  Heating  feed  and  precipitate. 
Bicarbonate  of  magnesia,   ]  Caustic  soda, 
lime,  iron  i  Lime. 

*•  Magnesia. 


Organic  matter 
.  Sulphate  of  lime 


Organic  matter 


Grease 


See  below. 

r  Sodium  carbonate. 
\  Barium  chloride. 

r  Precip.  with  alum         •» 

j  Precip.     with     ferric  i  and  filter. 

I      chloride 


f  Slaked  lime 

1  Carbonate  of  soda 


and  filter. 


Chloride  or  sulphate  of  1 

magnesium  j  Carbonate  of  soda. 

Sugars. 

Acid  Alkali. 


Dissolved   carbonic   acid  \  Slaked  lime' 
•j  Caustic  soda. 

I  Heating. 


and  oxygen 
Electrolytic  action 
Sewage 

Alkalies 

Carbon  ate  of  soda  in  large  i 
quantities  _-/ 


Zinc  plates. 

/  Precipitate    with    alum    or   fern 
1      chloride  and  filter. 

Heating  feed  and  precipitate, 
chloride. 


8  I 

H4         O 

I! 


o    o 

M         CQ 

QQ 


™     Js 

It 

g 

W 
I 


CHAPTER  II. 
BOILER-SCALE. 

THE  hard  coating  of  insoluble  materials  from  boiler  feed-waters 
on  the  water-heating  surface  of  steam-boilers  is  called  scale;  if 
this  deposit  anywhere  inside  the  water  or  steam  space  is  an  in- 
soluble powder  in  form  it  is  called  sediment. 

Both  scale  and  sediment  are  poor  conductors  of  heat  and  also 
are  a  cause  of  overheating  of  boiler-shells,  and  wherever  there  is 
a  deposit  of  sediment  or  scale,  it  is  in  those  places  we  are  most 
likely  to  find  evidences  of  corrosion. 

One  of  the  principal  objections  to  boiler-scale  of  ordinary  thick- 
ness is,  that  it  may  cause  the  metal  over  the  fire  to  be  so  highly 
heated  as  to  cause  burning;  also  leakage  of  joints  and  tube-ends 
and  their  subsequent  corrosion  and  other  forms  of  rapid  deteriora- 
tion. 

So  far  as  evaporative  efficiency  is  concerned,  soot  on  fire-sur- 
faces is  often  more  effectual  as  a  heat  retardent  than  is  ordinary 
scale.  Soot  is  known  to  be  a  very  good  non-conductor  of  heat. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  bagged  and  ruptured  sheet;  the  bag  to  the  right 
having  ruptured,  the  one  on  the  left  has  not. 

In  the  case  of  one  boiler  subjected  to  inspection  for  insurance 
it  was  found  full  of  scale  between  the  tubes  (probably  a  horizontal 
return  tubular-boiler),  necessitating  cutting  off  the  front  head  in 
order  to  remove  the  tubes. 

The  scale  was  almost  as  hard  as  granite,  and  had  to  be  broken 
with  a  heavy  hammer.  Five  hundred  pounds  of  scale  were  taken 
from  this  boiler. 

Mr.  James  T.  Fennell,  Chief  Inspector  for  the  Maryland  Casu- 

39 


40  BOILER-WATERS. 

alty  Company,  has  furnished  the  writer  these  interesting  items,  which 
are  pictured  on  pages  38,  42,  43  and  45,  and  facing  Chapter  II : 

Exhibit  1.— C.  S.  Garratt  &  Son's  Co.,  Buck  Run,  Pa.,  paper- 
mill.  From  flange  of  the  rear  head,  between  shell  and  tubes; 
was  much  larger;  broken  during  removal. 


(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co.) 

FIG.  5. — A  Bagged  and  Ruptured  Sheet. 

Exhibit  2.— Pottstown  Cold  Storage  and  Warehouse  Co.,  Potts- 
town,  Pa.  From  flange  of  the  rear  head,  between  the  shell  and 
tubes.  There  was  a  large  quantity  of  this  scale  in  each  of  the 
four  corners  of  the  boiler;  this  sample  came  from  the  corner  con- 
taining the  largest  quantity. 

This  was  from  a  boiler  supposed  to  be  clean,  but  the  cleanli- 
ness was  only  on  the  bottom  in  plain  sight,  the  scale  being  between 
the  tubes  and  overhead.  The  small  portions  of  scale  are  carried 
upward  by  the  circulation  and  come  down  in  the  restricted  pass- 
ages between  the  tubes,  and  tubes  and  shell  and  cement  them- 


BOILER-SCALE.  41 

selves  to  scale  already  formed  at  these  places,  completely  shutting 
off  circulation  at  many  points. 

Where  braces  are  put  in  so  close  that  a  man  cannot  get  near 
enough  to  the  boiler-heads  to  remove  the  scale  there,  in  time 
tubes  start  leaking,  and  must  themselves  be\  removed  to  get 
the  scale  away. 

Exhibit  3. — Is  from  a  boiler  in  John  Wanamaker's  store,  No. 
1829  Market  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  scale  remaining  on  the 
head  after  tube  was  removed  was  chipped  off  in  small  pieces, 
being  thoroughly  cemented  to  the  head  and  heads  of  rivets. 

The  Vulcanized  Rubber  Co.,  at  Morrisville,  Pa.,  have  also 
had  trouble  of  this  character,  and  at  Mr.  Fennell's  suggestion 
removed  the  bottom  tube  on  each  side,  tapped  the  whole,  inserted 
a  plug,  leaving  nothing  to  catch  the  scale. 

One  of  the  plants  of  the  Cincinnati  Gas  Light  &  Coke  Qo.  at 
Cincinnati,  0.,  having  vertical  tubular  boilers  similar  to  the  Man- 
ning type,  had  much  trouble  with  tubes  leaking  at  the  lower  end, 
on  account  of  accumulation  of  scale  on  tubes  and  sheet.  By 
removing  a  tube  here  and  there,  and  in  their  places  screwing 
in  a  brass  plug  having  a  square  socket  for  a  wrench — a  square 
projection  would  burn  off — it  was  found  thereafter  that  the 
furnace  crown-sheet  and  ends  of  tubes  would  keep  quite  clean 
when  boiler  was  washed  out  without  frequent  removal  of  plugs. 

The  improved  circulation  is  given  as  the  reason  for  the  con- 
ditions then  found. 

Exhibit '4.— -C.  S.  Garratt  &  Son's  Co.,  Paper  Mill,  at  Childs,  Md. 
Was  taken  from  a  pile  of  boiler-scale  from  a  number  of  tubes 
removed  from  boilers.  While  removing  these  tubes  one  collapsed. 

From  these  experiences  and  many  others  of  a  like  character 
the  designer  should  give  careful  consideration  to  the  kind  of  water 
that  is  fed  to  the  boiler,  which  if  bad  should  only  be  used  in  a 
boiler  with  free  and  unrestricted  passages,  and  one  from  which 
the  scale  can  be  easily  removed. 

Exhibit  5. — Shows  how  scale  has  been  thrown  up  in  the  drum 
of  a  water-tube  boiler  at  the  Thirteenth  and  Mount  Vernon  Streets 
power-house  of  the  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Co.  The  accumu- 
lation was  almost  up  to  the  manhole  in  the  drum. 

Stromeyer  and  Baron  say:  "  Scale  does  not  materially  reduce 
the  efficiency  of  a  boiler,  but  it  seriously  increases  its  wear  and  tear, 


42 


BOILER-WATERS. 


EXHIBIT  No.  1. 

SCALE  BETWEEN  SHELL  AND  TUBES. 
(U.  S.  Garrett  &  Son  Co.,  Buck  Run,  Pa.) 


EXHIBIT  No.  3. 
SCALE  BKTWEEN  THE  TUBES  NEAR  BOTTOM  OF  BOILER,  CAUSING  TUBE  TO  LEAK. 

(John  Wanamaker,  1825-1823  Market  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 
Water  used— Schuylkill  River  water. 


44 


BOILER-WATERS 


whereby  its  life  is  considerably  reduced.  It  also  endangers  the 
safety  of  boilers." 

Suspended  matter,  such  as  fine  sand,  and  especially  paper-pulp, 
settling  on  crown-sheets  causes  collapse. 

In  speaking  of  locomotive  boilers,  M.  E.  Wells  (Pac.  Ry.  Club, 
1903)  says  that  by  carefully  cooling  down  and  washing  boilers  he 


(Parker  Boiler  Co.) 


EXHIBIT  No.  5. 


found  that  the  more  carefully  this  was  done  the  more  white  mud 
came  down  to  be  washed  out,  the  percentage  analysis  of  which 
was: 

Sulphate  of  lime  (CaSO4) 4 .90 

Carbonate  of  lime  (CaCO3) 32.62 

11  magnesia  (MgCO3) 30.62 

Silica  (SiO2) 1 . 12 

Water  (H2O) 31 .90 

It  is  largely  made  up  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
After  some  months  the  scale  from  the  properly  cooled  boilers 
became  noticeably  less,  until  the  scale  averaged  the  thickness  of 


BOILER-SCALE. 


45 


an  egg-shell,  which  would  detach  itself  when  it  reached  a  certain 
thickness. 

These  shell-scales  from  boilers  on  divisions  of  the  railroad  400 
miles  apart  were  analyzed  as  follows: 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

Water  (H2O)  

11  24 

22  78 

Silica  (Si()2) 

3  14 

7  62 

A12O3  and  Fe2O3  
Calcium  (CaO)  
Magnesia  (MgO)  
Sulphuric  acid  (SO3). 
Undetermined 

92.  io 
24.10 
35.29 
4  13 

3.10 
31.00 

7.68 
21  91 
6  61 

(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co  ) 

FIG.  6. — Accumulation  of  Scale  in  Flue  Ends. 

These  analyses  show  principally  lime  and  magnesium  sulphates, 
which  form  the  scale  when  the  boilers  are  cooled  down  slowly. 
G.  M.  Davidson,*  chemist  and  engineer  of  tests,  C.  &  N.W. 


*  Western  Railway  Club,  Feb.  1903. 


46  BOILER-WATERS. 

Ry.  Co.,  states  that  the  scale  in  locomotive  boilers  is  due  to  one 
or  more  of  the  following  causes: 

1st.  Deposition  of  lime  and  magnesia  carbonates,  due  to  the 
boiling  off  of  the  carbonic-acid  gas  from  the  water  in  which  they 
were  dissolved. 

2d.  Deposition  of  sulphate  of  lime,  due  to  high  temperature  in 
the  boiler. 

3d.  Deposition  of  magnesia  compounds,  due  to  their  decom- 
position in  the  boiler. 

4th.  Deposition  of  sand,  clay,  and  other  matter  that  was  sus- 
pended in  the  water. 

5th.  Deposition  of  alkali  salts,  due  to  concentration. 

Analysis  of  Boiler-scale. — A  boiler-scale  containing  some  oil 
had  this  analysis: 

SiO2 7 . 36  per  cent 

Al203  +  Fe2O3 i  91    «      ii 

CaCO3 62.71  "  " 

MgCO3 18.15  "  " 

Mg(OH)? 4.21  "  " 

H?OatllO°C.  .- 2.51  "  " 

Oil  (lubricating) 3.53  "  " 

Undetermined.     0 . 62  "  ll 

Some  scales,  notably  oxides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  take 
up  a  large  amount  of  water  of  hydration;  one  such  example  from 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  after  this  water  was  driven  off  by  heating  to 
constant  weight,  gave  these  results: 

Silica  and  clay 11 . 70  per  cent 

AlA  +  FeA 2.81  f!  " 

CaS04 1.69  "  " 

CaCO3 5.45  "  " 

MgCO3 7.36  "  " 

Ca(OH)2 13.70  W  " 

Mg(OH)? 56.37  *  " 

H2O  (moisture  at  212°  F.) 0.69  "  " 

Undetermined 0.21  "  " 

99 . 97  per  cent 

A  Corliss  engine,  using  steam  at  120  pounds  pressure,  was  con- 
nected to  a  surface  condenser.  Ordinary  filtration  did  not  remove 
the  oil  in  the  condensed  steam  from  the  air-pump;  a  patent  filter, 


BOILER-SCALE.  47 

with  a  chemical  arrangement  for  coagulating  the  oil  with  alum, 
was  used  with  entire  success,  the  purified  water  being  as  clear 
as  spring- water. 

The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water,  the  more  im- 
purities will  be  settled  as  scale  or  powder;  in  some  cases  water  is 
taken  from  the  boiler,  and,  as  in  one  instance,  passed  through  a 
Hyatt  filter,  circulation  being  induced  by  means  of  a  Blessing  trap. 

In  Sweet's  rolling-mill,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  (1892),  the  water  was 
drawn  from  the  blow-off  cock  of  the  boiler,  and  treated,  filtered, 
and  passed  into  a  small  boiler  carrying  a  higher  steam-pressure 
than  the  main  battery,  and  from  there  back  to  the  main  boilers, 
thereby  throwing  down  more  impurities  than  in  the  main  battery. 

Mr,  W.  B.  Cogswell  says  that  at  the  Solvay  Process  Company's 
works  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  they  use  (1902)  a  weak  soda-liquor, 
containing  about  12  to  15  grains  Na2CO3  per  liter.  Say  1J  to  2 
cubic  meters  (397  to  530  gallons)  of  this  liquor  are  run  into  the 
precipita ting-tank.  Hot  water,  about  60°  C.»  is  then  turned  in,  and 
the  reaction  and  precipitation  go  on  while  the  tank  is  filling, 
which  requires  about  15  minutes.  When  the  tank  is  full  the  water 
is  filtered  through  the  four  Hyatt  5-ft.-diameter  and  the  one  Jewell 
10-ft. -diameter  filters  in  30  minutes.  Forty  tanks  are  treated  in 
24  hours.  Charge  of  water  purified  at  once,  9275  gallons.  Soda 
in  purifying  reagent,  15  kilograms  Na2C03.  Soda  used  per  1000 
gallons,  3.5  pounds. 

Analysis  of  lake  water,  January  1,  1892: 

Calcium  sulphate 261  grams  per  liter 

Calcium  chloride 183       " .       "      " 

Calcium  bicarbonate  (as  CaCO3) 091       "        "      " 

Magnesium  bicarbonate  (as  MgCO3)    .    .015      "        "      " 

chloride 087      "        "      " 

Salt..  .63        "        "      '• 


Analysis  of  mud  from  Hyatt  filter: 

Silica 15. 17  grams  per  liter 

Iron  and  aluminum  oxide 3 . 75       "        ' '       " 

Calcium  sulphate 3 . 70      "        "      " 

Magnesium  carbonate Ill       "        "       " 

Calcium  carbonate.  .  .63.37      "        "      " 


48 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Analysis  of  scale  from  boiler-tube,  November  14,  1887: 

Silica 2 . 29  grams  per  liter 

Iron  and  aluminum  oxide.  ........  1 . 10       "        ' '       " 

Calcium  carbonate 19 . 76       "        "      " 

Magnesium  carbonate 25.21       "        "      " 

Calcium  sulphate 51 .24       "        "      " 

NaCl.  .  .14       "        "      " 


99.74  grams  per  liter 

Analysis  of  scale  found  in  pump,  pumping  from  tanks  through 
filters: 


Silica 


8  grams  per  liter 


Iron  and  aluminum  oxide  ..........      1.2       "        '  '     '  ' 

Calcium  carbonate  ................   87.         "        "     " 

sulphate  ..................    10.9      "        "     " 

99.9  grams  per  liter 

A  sample  is  taken  from  each  boiler  every  other  day  and  tested 
for  degrees  Baume  soda  and  salt. 

If  the  degree  Baume  is  more  than  2,  that  boiler  is  blown  to 
reduce  it  below  2°  Be. 

Samples  taken  from  twelve  boilers  on  Feb.  10,  1889,  when  canal- 
water  was  used  for  steam,  gave  the  following  results  on  testing 
for  degrees  Baume  Na2C03,  Na2SO4,  and  NaCl: 


Boiler. 

Degree 
Baume". 

Na2CO3. 

Na2SO4. 

NaCl. 

No     1 

1 

2  86 

3  39 

94 

2  

1   8 

5  14 

6  51 

1   31 

3  ,  

8 

1  53 

1  63 

.585 

4 

1  6 

4  24 

5  51 

1  52 

5 

2  4 

6  62 

8  97 

2  34 

6   .... 

1 

2  49 

2  92 

906 

7  

2 

5  56 

7  91 

2  77 

8  

2  8 

8  42 

10  36 

1.98 

9 

1  6 

4  45 

5  77 

1  57 

10 

1  2 

2  86 

3  47 

1  02 

11    

1  6 

4  24 

5  9 

1  58 

12  

3  1 

6  51 

15  8 

2.19 

The  analysis  of  the  canal-water  at  this  time  was: 

CaSO4 246  grams  per  liter 

CaHCO0  as  CaCO, .031       "        "      " 

NaCl 043      "       "      " 

MgCl2 038      "       "      " 


BOILER-SCALE. 


49 


It  will  be  seen  that  at  this  time  the  carbonate  of  soda  and 
sulphate  of  soda  were  present  in  greatest  quantity,  and  the  boilers 
had  to  be  blown  to  keep  these  down  in  saturation. 

This  was  not  the  case  on  January  1,  1892.  The  salt  in  the  lake- 
water  is  now  very  high.  More  than  twenty  times  the  amount  is 
now  present  in  the  lake-water,  and  hence  the  high  degree  Baume 
is  caused  by  the  salt  more  than  by  the  sulphate  and  carbonate 
of  soda. 

The  following  is  test  of  degrees  Baume  Na2CO3  and  salt  on 
January  1,  1892: 


Degree 

Grams  pei 

Liter. 

Baume*. 

Nad. 

Na2C03. 

No.     1  .  . 

1   0 

7  87 

848 

2  

3 

3  56 

318 

3  

2  7 

17  30 

2  96 

4  

1  9 

10  99 

1  84 

5 

2  6 

16  66 

42 

6. 

5 

4  09 

2  Qfi 

7 

2  8 

17  30 

q   71 

8     . 

3  4 

20  00 

4    1 

9   . 

3  4 

21  52 

Q     18 

10   .  . 

3  0 

18  72 

300 

11   

2  7 

16  66 

Q     10 

12   

2  5 

15  08 

Q  no 

It  would  then  be  much  better  to  use  in  the  boilers  canal-water 
instead  of  lake-water,  to  avoid  this  large  percentage  of  salt. 
The  analysis  of  the  canal-water  is: 


CaSO. 
CaCl.  . 
CaCO. 
MgCO. 
NaCl. . 


.223 

None 

.088 

.08 

.04 


One  man  attends  to  the  work  during  the  day  and  one  during 
the  night. 


50  BOILER-WATERS. 


PURIFICATION  OF  WATER  AT  LAKE  PUMP.* 

Amount  purified  per  day  (24  hours),  13,000  gallons. 

Soda  used,  40  pounds  in  24  hours. 

Soda  per  1000  gallons,  3^  pounds. 

Fliter  used,  a  Bunnell,  3  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  5  feet 
high.  Washed  twice  in  24  hours. 

The  soda  (about  20  pounds)  is  dissolved  in  90  gallons  of  water, 
and  this  solution  is  mixed  in  the  top  of  the  filter  with  water  from 
the  hot- well  and  the  circulating  water  from  the  boilers  at  65°  C., 
and  is  then  filtered.  Filter  washed  twice  in  24  hours.  There  is 
no  scale  now  in  these  boilers. 

Rules  for  Preventing  Scale. — J.  C.  Simpson, f  of  the  Boiler 
Insurance  and  Steam-power  Company,  read  a  paper  in  1894  at 
Hull,  England,  on  Incrustation  in  Steam-boilers,  and  recommended 
these  rules  for  lessening  incrustation  troubles: 

1.  The  blow-off  top  should  be  opened  the  first  thing  in  the 
morning,  and  again  at  starting  after  stoppage  at  each  meal,  and 
kept  open  for  twenty  seconds  at  a  time. 

2.  A  suitable  fluid  should  be  put  in  regularly  with  the  feed- 
water. 

3.  When  the  time  came   round  for  boiler-cleaning,  the  water 
should  be  kept  in  after  the  steam  is  blown  out,  the  dampers  opened, 
and  the  brickwork  allowed  to  cool  for  thirty-six  hours,  if  practica- 
ble, after  which  the  water  should  be  run  out,  and  the  cleaners  sent 
in  as  soon  as  possible. 

Removal  of  Scale. — Aside  from  the  results  obtained  when  water 
has  been  chemically  treated  and  leaves  a  soft,  pliable,  muddy 
deposit  or  sludge,  which  can  be  readily  blown  out,  or  taken  from 
the  boiler  by  hand,  there  is  the  hard  scale,  only  to  be  removed 
by  using  edged  tools,  which  method  is  not  only  hard  work,  often 
dangerous  to  the  boiler  itself,  but  it  is  also  expensive. 

There  are  many  patented  devices  on  the  market  for  removing 
scale  and  cleaning  boilers  by  machinery,  many  of  which  are  very 
effective  and  good;  but  we  will  not  describe  them  here. 

Do  not  turn  cold  water  into  a  steam-boiler  which  is  already 
hot,  and  crack  the  scale  and  loosen  it,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  taken 

*  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  13.  t  Eng.  Record,  Vol.  29,  p.  94. 


BOILER-SCALE.  51 

out,  for  such  a  course  is  disastrous  to  the  boiler,  and  the  boiler- 
maker  will  be  required  to  do  much  work  before  your  boiler  will 
be  fit  for  service. 

The  Engineering  Record  well  says :  "  A  boiler-plant  which  is 
supplied  with  impure  water  should  be  in  two  parts,  one  a  purifying 
apparatus,  and  the  other  the  boiler  proper;  and  these  should  be 
entirely  distinct  from  each  other." 

The  purifier  removes  the  scale-making  material  and  other  im- 
purities from  the  water,  and  deposits  it  where  it  can  be  readily 
removed  and  where  it  will  do  no  harm.  The  boiler  then  has  to 
perform  simply  the  functions  of  generating  steam,  and  with  pure 
water  the  heating-surfaces  can  be  arranged  in  the  best  manner  to 
secure  efficiency  without  regard  to  the  deposit  of  scale. 

Water  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat ;  and  since  the  heat  imparted 
to  boiler-waters  is,  in  the  case  of  the  best-designed  boilers,  on  the 
bottom  of  the  shell  or  tubes,  and  the  circulation  is  generally  con- 
ceded to  be  in  vertical  lines  or  planes,  the  heated  water  passes 
upward  and  its  place  is  taken  by  slightly  cooler  water  in  its  turn; 
therefore,  to  secure  the  highest  results  in  evaporative  efficiency, 
the  contact  or  medium  of  heat  transmission  between  the  furnace- 
fire  and  the  water  must  be  in  the  most  perfect  and  clean  condition 
possible,  and  maintained  in  that  condition. 

The  steel  shell  is  this  medium,  except  in  a  very  few  cases 
where  other  metals  are  used,  and  is  a  good  medium  when  clean. 
The  instant  that  its  outer  or  inner  surface  (we  are  dealing 
principally  with  the  inner)  becomes  coated  or  insulated  in  any 
way,  there  is  an  immediate  reduction  in  the  evaporative  efficiency 
of  the  boiler,  which  depends  upon  the  amount,  solidity,  and  the 
general  character  of  the  coating  or  scale;  a  very  thin  scale  fre- 
quently produces  easily  detected  loss  of  efficiency. 

Conduction  of  Heat. — Conduction  is  the  movement  ot  heat 
through  substances,  or  from  one  substance  to  another  in  contact 
with  it.  The  table  herewith  contains  the  relative  internal  conducting 
power  of  metals  and  earths,  according  to  M.  Despretz.  Bodies 
which  are  finely  fibrous,  as  cotton,  wool,  eider-down,  wadding,  and 
finely  divided  charcoal,  are  the  worst  conductors  of  heat.  Liquids 
and  gases  are  bad  conductors,  but  if  suitable  provision  be  made 
for  the  free  circulation  of  fluids  they  may  abstract  heat  very  quickly 
by  contact  with  heated  surfaces,  acting  by  convection.  Con- 


52 


BOILER-WATERS. 


vection,  or  carried  heat,  is  that  which  is  transferred  from  one 
place  to  another  by  a  current  of  liquid  or  gas;  for  example,  by 
the  products  of  combustion  in  a  furnace  towards  the  heating, 
surface  in  the  flues  of  a  boiler. 


Substance. 

Relative 
Conducting 
Power 

Substance. 

Relative 
Conducting 
Power 

Gold         

1000 

Zinc. 

363 

Platinum  

981 

Tin  

304 

Silver 

973 

Lead 

180 

Copper 

892 

Marble 

24 

Brass             

749 

Porcelain 

12 

562 

Terra-cotta     

11 

Wrought  iron  

374 

D.  K.  Clark,  Manual  of  Rules,  Tables,  Data,  etc.,  p.  331. 

Transmission  of  Heat. — Experiments  of  the  transmission  of 
heat;  that  is,  units  of  heat  a  plate  J  inch  thick  will  transmit  per 
square  foot  per  hour  if  supplied  with  an  unlimited  amount  of 
water  on  one  side  and  steam  on  the  other: 

Cast  iron 265  units 

Wrought  iron 252  " 

Steel 246  " 

White  metal 207  " 

Brass  plates 175  " 

Gun-metal 168  ' ' 

Phosphor-bronze 162  ' ' 

Copper 155 

Tin-plate 142  " 

Glass-plate 259  ' ' 

Tiles 240 

W.  S.  Hutton,  1887. 

Tiles  and  glass  are  very  much  superior  to  copper  and  tin  for  the 
transmission  of  heat,  but  have  less  conductivity. 

The  effect  of  scale  in  a  boiler  is  shown  by  this  extract  from 
report  of  tests  made  in  a  boiler  in  the  Conservatory,  France : 


Water  Vapor- 
ized per  Hour. 

Coal  Burned 
per  Hour. 

Steam  per  Kilo  of 
Coal  per  Hour. 

Boiler  clean 

200  liters 

25  5  kilos 

8   50 

'  '       scaled          

136     " 

34.7     " 

3.87 

Tower,  p.  87. 


BOILER-SCALE.  53 

After  a  long  period  of  use  we  thus  have  the  evaporative 
capacity  compared  to  what  it  was  when  the  boiler  was  clean. 

An  experiment  *  on  the  effect  of  scale  on  transmission  of  heat 
showed  that  a  calcium-sulphate  scale  0.11  inch  thick  caused  a 
loss  in  evaporative  efficiency  of  over  7  per  cent. 

In  a  set  of  experiments,  J.  Hirsch,f  1890,  used  a  small  kettle 
about  10  inches  diameter  with  an  iron  bottom  f  inch  thick. 

When  this  plate  had  been  covered  with  scale  J  inch  thick  the 
temperature  of  the  fire  side  of  the  plate  had  to  be  increased  an 
additional  460°  when  evaporating  55  pounds  of  water  per  hour. 

Thus  scale  as  in  above  tests  offers  five  times  the  resistance  to 
transmission  of  heat  that  iron  does.  Other  experiments  show  ten 
times  as  the  ratio  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  iron.  Hirsch  also  proves 
the  injurious  results  from  allowing  grease  to  settle  on  heating- 
surfaces. 

Ten  specimens  of  scale,  three  of  lubricants,  two  of  tar,  and 
one  of  anti-scale  substance  were  measured  at  about  30°  C.  (86°  F.) 
by  Christiansen's  comparison  method  by  W.  R.  Ernst,  t  in  order 
to  test  whether  scale-forming  and  other  materials  settling  on 
boiler-surfaces  are  really  conducive  to  boiler  explosions  and  burnt 
plates. 

The  conductivity  of  the  scale  varied  between  0.00313  and  0.00768 
(that  is,  3  to  7.4  times  that  of  water)  and  that  of  other  substances 
between  0.000253  and  0.000324.  Calculations  are  made  by  means 
of  these  numbers  of  the  temperatures  of  scale-covered  surfaces 
under  certain  ordinary  conditions  of  steam  pressure  and  genera- 
tion, and  their  results  thoroughly  justify  the  usual  notions  on  the 
subject. 

The  conductivity  of  one  of  the  specimens  of  scale  diminished 
by  15  per  cent  when  its  temperature  was  raised  to  110°  C.  (230°  F.)' 

The  transmission  of  heat  through  plates  from  hot  gases  on  the 
one  side  to  water  on  the  other,  from  tests  conducted  by  Blechynden, 
resulted  in  the  conclusion  that 


*  J  A.  Carney,  Proc.  A.  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  1897. 
f  Stromeyer,  Marine-boiler  Management,  p.  95. 
j  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  Sitz.  Ber.  Ill,  2a,  July  1902. 


54  BOILER-WATERS. 

Q  =  B.T.U.  transmitted  per  square  foot  per  hour; 
T  =  temperature  of  furnace  at  plate; 

t  =  steam  temperature  or  water  temperature  at  steam  side  of  plate; 
A  =  a,  constant,  which  in  the  tests  varied  from  38.6  to  71.9. 

200  to  400  is  a  value  more  likely  to  be  obtained  in  steam-boiler 
tests,  and,  in  fact,  Schwackhofer  (p.  33)  gives,  as  the  value 
of  H,  560  to  700. 

Blechynden  also  found  that  the  slightest  traces  of  grease  caused 
a  marked  fall  in  the  rate  of  transmission.  Smoothness  of  surfaces 
had  a  marked  influence  on  the  rate  of  heat  transmission  also. 

A.  D.  Risteen  *  outlines  a  method  for  calculation  of  the  effect 
of  scale  on  the  transmission  of  heat  by  taking  the  temperature 
degrees  F.,  or  t  measured  just  within  the  material  of  the  plate 
where  it  is  considerable  less  than  in  the  fire  itself  just  away  from 
the  plate,  and  t'  the  degrees  F.  just  within  the  scale,  using  the 
formula 

t-t' 
Q= =  T.U.  transmitted  per  square  foot  per  hour. 

p= thickness  of  plate  in  inches; 

r  =  a  constant  =  specific  internal  thermal  resistance  of  the  plate 
material,  which  equals  about  0.0043. 

If  there  are  two  thicknesses  or  layers  of  different  composition, 
let 

s  =  thickness  of  layer  of  scale  in  inches. 
The  formula  then  becomes 

t-t' 


Q  = 


rp  +  Rs' 


where  R= specific  internal  resistance  of  the  scale  (Rankine  gives 
7^=0.0716  for  calcium  carbonate  or  marble); 
T  =  temperature  of  furnace  gases  near  plate ; 
t"  =  temperature  of  water  in  boiler. 

*  Amer.  Man'f  r,  Sept.  1904. 


BOILER-SCALE.  55 

If  T  is  made  use  of,  being  measured  beyond  the  chilled  film  on 
the  surface  of  the  metal,  we  will  need  another  formula  in  which 
so-called  "  surface  "  or  skin  resistance  is  represented  by  k,  or 

Q  " 


k+rp  +  Rs' 

180 
Rankine  gives  the  value  of   k  for   boiler-plate  as  =  — — -7-,,  which 

substituted  in  the  above  gives 
QJ 


By  using  this  formula  for  Q  in  the  case  of  a  clean  boiler  we  have 

Q  =  6068; 
f=359.8,  or  less  than  10°  hotter  than  the  water  in  the  boiler. 

Now  considering  a  scale  J  inch  thick,  everything  else  the  same 
as  before,  we  get 


/  =  410.9,  or  60°.9  hotter  than  the  water  in  the  boiler. 

The  heat-absorbing  power  of  the  boiler  has  also  been  decreased 
about  5  per  cent.  "  The  efficiency  of  the  boiler  as  a  whole 
would  not  be  reduced  by  as  much  as  the  5  per  cent  here  indi- 
cated, because  the  furnace-gases  would  enter  the  tubes  at  a  higher 
temperature  than  they  would  have  had  if  the  boilers  were  free  from 
scale,  and  hence  the  heat  absorption  in  the  tubes  would  be  greater 
than  before";  the  heat  absorption  in  the  furnace  likewise  being 
less. 

A  partial  compensation  would  then  result,  and  the  efficiency 
would  not  actually  fall  off  the  5  per  cent  as  calculated  for  plate 
and  scale. 

Conductivity  of  Scale.  —  Tests  made  by  members  of  the 
N.  A.  S.  E.,  No.  31,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  reported  in  Power, 
1896,  showed  the  relative  conductivity  of  different  substances 
as  used  in  boilers  to  be: 

Brass  ............................................     4 

Plaster  of  Paris  ...................................   26 

Portland  cement  ............................  71 


56 


BOILER-WATERS. 


A  vessel  coated  &  of  an  inch  with  plaster  of  Paris  steamed 
just  as  quickly  as  a  clean  one. 

A  sample  of  scale  was  tested  which  had  the  same  conductivity 
as  the  plaster  of  Paris. 

THERMAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  SOLIDS.* 


{' 

1 

1 

1 
1 

2 

3 

3 

2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
.4 
4 
1 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
1 
1 
1- 
5 

Materials. 

G.  C.  S.  Scale. 

English  Scales. 

Thermal  Units. 

Evaporative  Units. 

Iron  at    32°  F  

"     "   212°  F  
«     «  527o  F  

<  < 

.207  to  .154 
.157  to  .129 
.124  to  .112 
.164 
.199 
(1-.0029*0  C.) 
1.027 
(1-.002H°C.) 
1.108 
.302 
.307 
.109 
.0055  to  .0065 
.00315  to  .0036 
.0081 
.00223 
.0020  to  .0033 
.00174 
.00164 
.00057  to  .00113 
.00055 
.00026  to  .00359 
.00041 
.000089 
.00048 
.00022 
.00044 
.000122 
.000094 
.000453 
.00014 
.0000335 
.00136 

603  to  449 
456  to  375 
361  to  297 
477 
610 
(1-.0015*°F.) 
8140 
(1  -.00110**.  F.) 
3220 
878 
892 
317 
160  to  190 
92  to  105 
23.5 
6.6 
5  .  8  to  9  .  6 
51 
48 
1.65  to  3.  3 
1.60 
.76  to  1.71 
1.19 
.258 
1.40 
.64 
1.28 
.35 
.273 
1.33 
.41 
.097 
4.00 

.621  to  .462 
.472  to  .387 
.372  to  .306 
.492 
.6 
(1-.0015*0  F.) 
3.08 
(1-.0021*°F.) 
3.024 
.906 
.921 
.327 
.0165  to  .0195 
.0095  to  .0108 
.0243 
.00669 
.006  to  .010 
.00522 
.00492 
.0017  to  .0034 
.00165 
.00078  to  .00177 
.00123 
.000267 
.00144 
.00066 
.00132 
.000366 
.000282 
.00136 
.00042 
.0001 
.004 

.  / 

i 
Copper 

«  < 

Brass        

Zinc         

German  silver  
Slate,  alone;  cleavage 
'  '      across       '  ' 

Clay,  sun  dried  
Chalk            .... 

Fire-brick 

Plaster  of  Paris,  wet. 
Coal          

Pumice-stone  
Various  woods 

Caoutchouc  
'  '         vulcanized 
Gutta-percha           .  . 

Powdered  charcoal  .  . 
"          coke  
Charred  wood.    .  .  .  . 
Gray  paper  

Pasteboard 

Paraffin 

Flannel     

Water  

Observers. — 1.   Forbes;  2.  Neumann;  3.  Angstrom;  4.  Peclet;  5.  Weber 
*  Stromeyer,  Marine-boiler  Management. 

In  this  table  thermal  units  are  the  units  of  heat  which  1 
square  foot  of  heating-surface  1  inch  thick  will  transmit  per  hour, 
with  a  difference  of  temperature  on  the  two  surfaces  of  the  plate 
of  1°  F. 


BOILER-SCALE. 


57 


Evaporative  units  are  thermal  units  divided  by  966,  the  T.U. 
required  to  evaporate  one  pound  of  water  from  and  at  212°  F. 

Evaporative  units  can  also  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the 
figures  in  G.C.S.  column  by  3. 

These  experiments  were  made  on  rods  or  rings  and  do  not 
give  precisely  the  same  results  as  plates  do. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Bell,*  in  a  paper  before  the  Ohio  Soc.  of  Mech., 
Elec.,  and  Steam  Engineers  (1904)  on  the  effect  of  boiler  con- 
ditions on  efficiency,  referred  to  a  boiler  having  a  slight  coating 
of  scale  and  all  the  dust  it  could  hold  on  every  portion  of  tubes, 
etc.,  which  gave  an  equivalent  evaporation  of  8.04  pounds  per 
pound  of  dry  buckwheat  coal  when  boiler  was  in  above  condi- 
tion and  10.3  pounds  after  boiler  had  been  cleaned. 

Another  case  concerning  thickness  of  fires  is  also  noted:  A 
pumping-plant  operated  under  identical  conditions  gave  a  duty  of 
93,000,000  foot-pounds  when  the  fire  was  8  to  9  inches  thick 
and  143,000,000  foot-pounds  when  the  fire  was  14  to  15  inches 
thick.  A  high-grade  semi-bituminous  coal  was  used. 

Transmission  of  Heat  through  Scale-covered  Boiler-tubes. — 
A  series  of  experiments  were  conducted  by  F.  L.  McCune  in  1901, 
at  the  University  of  Illinois,  to  determine  the  relative  conduc- 
tivities for  heat  of  clean  and  scaled  locomotive-boiler  tubes. 

Tubes  were  furnished  by  different  railroads,  and  were  tested 
in  a  special  apparatus  in  which  hot  gases  passed  through  the  tubes 
and  water  around  them  received  the  heat. 

The  tests  are  very  fully  described  in  the  Railroad  Gazette, 
June  14,  1901,  p.  408,  in  which  paper  is  also  a  drawing  of  the 
apparatus  used. 

TUBES  TESTED. 


Time  in 

Diameter 

of  Tube. 

Average 

Tube  No. 

Railroad. 

Service, 

Thickness  of 

Months. 

Scale,  Inch. 

Inside. 

Outside. 

2 

P.  &E. 

13£ 

1.75 

2.00 

0.04 

3 

1  1 

5* 

.75 

2.00 

0.02 

5 

C.,M.  &St.  P. 

.75 

2.00 

0.13 

6 

I.  C.  R.R. 

51 

.75 

2.00 

0.07 

7 

P.  &E. 

37J 

.75 

2.00 

0.04 

9 

C.,  B.  &  Q. 

.75 

2.00 

0.07 

11 

I.  C.  R.R. 

'21 

.75 

2.00 

0.09 

14 

P.  &E. 



1.75 

2.00 

0.00 

*  Eng.  Rec.,  Vol.  51,  p.  53. 


58 


BOILER-WATERS. 


The  character  of  the  scale  for  the  various  tubes  was  as  follows: 

Tube  No.    2,  soft,  porous,  mud-colored,  off  in  places; 

"  "       3,  even,  hard,  dense,  white; 

"  "        5,  even,  hard,  dense,  mud-colored; 

"  "        6,  mileage  during  service,  19,690; 

"  "       7,  hard,  dense  and  rough,  one  end;   soft  and  porous 

at  the  other; 

"  "       9,  hard,  porous,  gray;   mileage,  50,889; 

"  "      11,  soft,  porous; 

"  "      14,  clean  tube. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  TUBES. 


Tube  No. 
A 

Averages  for  the  Various  Tests  of  Eacb  Tube 

Range  of  Temp 
between  Water 
and  Gases 

B 

B.T.U   Trans- 
mitted through 
the  Tube  During 
the  Tests. 

C 

B.T.U.  which 
would  have 
been  Trans- 
mitted had  the 
Range  of  Temp, 
been  the  Same 
as  for  Tube  14. 
D 

Decrease  of 
Conductivity 
Due  to  the  Scale, 
29854  -  Col.  D 

29854 
E 

2  

859.4 
877.3 
.      855.9 
899.3 
886.5 
820.8 
882.2 
873.4 

27370 
27258 
27270 
30675 
29370 
23362 
26937 
29854 

27816 
27137 
27828 
29792 
28936 
24859 
26680 
29854 

6.82 
9.10 
6.75 
0.21 
3.07 
16.73 
10.63 
Clean  tube 

3 

5  

6.  

7 

9 

11  
14  

The  above  illustrates  how  great  may  be  the  losses  from  scale 
on  tubes,  also  how  variable  a  quantity  the  loss  is  with  various 
kinds  of  scale  and  from  water  of  different  localities. 

Effect  of  Scale  on  Evaporative  Power  of  a  Locomotive  Boiler. 
— The  mechanical  engineering  department  of  the  University  of 
Illinois  in  1898  conducted  a  series  of  tests  on  a  locomotive  to 
determine  its  evaporative  efficiency,  with  clean  or  scaled  water- 
surfaces. 

The  locomotive  tested  was  a  Mogul,  No.  420,  on  the  Illinois 
Central  R.  R.,  built  by  the  Rogers  L.  &  M.  Works  of  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  and  had  beon  in  use  twenty-one  months. 

The  tests  were  made  in  the  round-house  and  by  the  "  standard  " 
method. 


BOILER-SCALE. 


59 


The  following  are  the  locomotive's  principal  dimensions  and 
proportions : 

Cylinders,  19  inches  diameter. 
Stroke,  26  inches. 
Diameter  of  drivers,  56£  inches. 
Total  weight  of  engine,  126,000  pounds. 
Diameter  of  boiler,  62  inches. 

Tubes,  236;  2  inches  diameter,  11  feet  ft  inch  long. 
Fire-box,  114£  inches  long  by  33f  inches  wide. 
"         depth,  front  end,  67£  inches. 

"       back    "     59$      " 
Length  of  grate,  114£  inches. 
Width    "      "        33|      " 
Diameter  of  steam-dome,  29£  inches. 
Lagging  of  boiler,  magnesia  sectional. 
Grate-area,  26.45  square  feet. 
Total  heating-surface,  1531.65  square  feet. 
Area  of  draught  through  tubes,  573.48  square  inches. 
Ratio,  grate-  to  heating-surface,  1  to  57.91. 
Fuel,  ordinary  mine-run. 

Lumps,  75  per  cent;  small  coal,  20  per  cent;  slack,  5  per  cent. 
B.T.U.  per  pound  of  dry  coal  by  calorimeter,  12,240. 

The  results  of  these  tests  are  given  in  the  tables  on  page  60, 
and  a  condensed  table  of  results  is  given  here: 


Scale  in 

Boiler. 

Clean 

Boiler. 

Date  of  trial,  1898         

May  2 

May   3 

May  31 

Duration  of  test,  hours      

8  33 

8  17 

8  03 

o   i« 

Steam  pressure,  by  gauge  

143 

140 

116  4 

114 

Vacuum  in  smoke-box,  inches  water. 
Temperature  of  feed-water,  deg   F.  .  . 
'  '  escaping  gases,  deg.  F 
Moisture  in  coal 

2.0 
57 
623 
4 

2.0 
54 
670 
4 

2.9 
58.5 
621 
4 

2.8 
59.4 

687 

Per  cent  ash  (from  ash-pan)          .... 

15  6 

15  6 

16  6 

107 

"      "     moisture  in  steam  

2.25 

2.25 

2.85 

2.85 

The  loss  due  to  scale  in  the  boiler  was  9.55  per  cent.  Average 
thickness  of  scale  on  principal  heating-surface  /T  inch.  360  pounds 
were  removed  from  the  tubes  and  125  pounds  were  removed  from 
the  shell  and  fire-box  sheets,  a  total  of  485  pounds. 


60 


BOILER- WATERS. 


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BOILER-SCALE.  61 

The  quality  of  scale  from  various  parts  is  noted  below;  the 
reference  numbers  refer  also  to  table  of  analysis. 

Point  No.  1.  Near  injector-discharge,  hard  and  soft  scale  J  inch 
thick ; 

"  "  2.  On  upper  tubes,  hard  smooth  scale,  uniform  thick- 
ness of  $2  inch ; 

"       "    3.  On  lower  tubes,  hard  scale  near  middle,  ^  inch  thick; 

"       "    4.  Mud  covering  hard  scale  at  No.  3,  ^  inch  thick; 

"  "  5.  Scale  from  side  sheet,  flue-sheet  and  tubes,  rough 
and  scaly; 

"       "    6.  From  bottom  of  barrel,  4  feet  from  flue-sheet; 

"       "    7.  On  crown-stays,  3  to  6  inches  from  crown-sheet; 

"       "    8.  On  crown-sheet,  rivet-heads  and  base  of  stays; 

"       "    9.  From  the  water-line  on  vertical  stay-bolts. 

Note  that  the  calcium  carbonates  deposit  easily  without  high 
heat,  that  is,  near  the  injector-discharge  (Point  No.  1)  and  in 
bottom  of  the  boiler  (Point  No.  6),  while  on  the  crown-sheet  (Point 
No.  8)  the  scale  carries  the  largest  percentage  of  calcium  sulphate. 

The  boilers  were  supplied  with  good  feed-water,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  scale  accumulating  in  the 
lengthy  period  of  twenty-one  months. 

More  complete  details  and  two  cost  diagrams  may  be  found 
in  the  Railroad  Gazette  of  Jan.  27,  1899. 

Thermal  Conductivity. — The  relation  between  thermal  and 
electrical  conductivity  is  given  by  H.  F.  Weber,  1880,  as 

|  =  (0.0877  +  0. 136(7)  104; 
& 

where  T  =  thermal  conductivity; 
E  —  electrical  conductivity ; 
(7= specific  heat  of  the  substance. 

Scale-forming  Solids. — C.  L.  Kennicott,  in  Proc.  Western 
Ry.  Club,  1903,  gives  this  rule  for  finding  the  weight  of  scale- 
forming  solids  entering  a  boiler:  Take  any  analysis,  divide  the 
number  of  grains  (per  American  gallon)  of  in  crusting  solids  by  7r 
and  you  have  the  pounds  per  1000  gallons;  multiply  this  result 
by  the  number  of  "  1000  gallons  "  used  in  a  given  time  and  you 
have  the  weight  of  incrusting  solids  entering  the  boilers. 


62 


BOILER-WATERS. 


AMOUNT  OF  SEDIMENT  COLLECTED  IN  A  STEAM-BOILER  WHEN 
EVAPORATING  1000  GALLONS  OF  WATER  PER  DAY,  6000  GALLONS 
PER  WEEK,  GALLONS  OF  58,318  GRAINS  EACH. 


When  a  Gallon  of 
Feed-water  Evapo- 
rated to  Dryness 
at  212°  Fahrenheit 
Leaves  of  Solid 
Matter  in  Grains. 

The  Amount  of  Solid  Matter 
Collecting  in  Boiler  per  Day 
will  be 

The  Amount  of  Solid  Matter 
Collecting  in  Boiler  per  Week 
will  be 

Grains. 

Pounds. 

Ounces. 

Pounds. 

Ounces. 

1 

2.286 

13.714 

2 

4.571 

i 

11.428 

3 

. 

6.857 

2 

9.143 

4 

.  . 

9.143 

3 

6.857 

5 

.  . 

11.428 

4 

4.571 

6 

.  .  . 

13.714 

5 

2.285 

7 

1 

6 

8 

1 

2.286 

6 

is'714 

9 

1 

4.571 

7 

11.428 

10 

1 

6.857 

8 

9.142 

15 

2 

2.285 

12 

13.713 

20 

2 

13.714 

17 

2.284 

25 

3 

9.142 

21 

6.855 

30 

4 

4.571 

25 

11.426 

35 

5 

30 

40 

5 

11.428 

34 

4.571 

45 

6 

6.856 

38 

9.143 

50 

7 

2.285 

42 

13.714 

55 

7 

13.713 

47 

2.285 

60 

8 

9.142 

51 

6.857 

65 

9 

4.571 

55 

11.428 

70 

10 

60 

75 

10 

11.428 

64 

'  4.bi\ 

80 

11 

6.857 

68 

9.143 

85 

12 

2.286 

72 

13.714 

90 

12 

13.714 

77 

2.285 

95 

13 

9.143 

81 

6.857 

100 

14 

4.571 

85 

11.428 

110 

15 

11.428 

94 

4.571 

120 

17 

2.286 

102 

13.714 

130 

18 

9.143 

111 

6.857 

140 

20 

120 

150 

21 

6\857 

128 

9J42 

160 

22 

13.714 

137 

2.285 

170 

24 

4.571 

145 

11.428 

180 

25 

11.428 

154 

4.571 

190 

27 

2.286 

162 

13.714 

200 

28 

9.143 

171 

6.857 

210 

30 



180 

Locomotive,  1884. 

The  above  table  was  prepared  by  F  E  Engelhardt,  Ph.D.,  of  the  American 
Dairy  Salt  Company,  Syracuse,  New  York.  It  represents  the  total  amount 
of  solid  matter,  or  sediment,  deposited  under  the  conditions  of  the  boiler 
making  steam  without  any  water  being  drawn  or  blown  off,  or  any  cleaning 
whatever,  and  shows  the  necessity  for  such  cleaning  even  in  the  case  of  a 
good  feed-water 


BO1LER-SCA 


63 


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3,  as  they  were  done  under  different  circumstances.  They,  however,  furnish 

te  precipitated  with  an  increasing  pressure,  and  therefore  temperature, 
ass,  in  which  the  temporary  hardness  is  predominant. 
3  to  sulphate  of  lime, 
rkable,  also  the  action  on  iron, 
mall  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  has  probably  been  protected  by  the  iron 

ignesium  carbonate  found  in  some  of  the  above  analyses  must  be  due  to  the 

10 
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NOTES  —These  analyses  are  only  comparative  in  a  general  sens* 
good  examples  of  the  effects  of  varying  conditions. 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4  show  the  increasing  proportion  of  calcium  sulpha 
In  Nos.  6,  7,  9,  10,  12,  the  waters  were  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  c 
In  Nos.  8,  14,  15,  the  waters  had  a  high  permanent  hardness,  du 
No.  10  is  a  magnesian  water.  The  high  amount  of  silica  is  rema 
No.  16  shows  the  action  of  a  soft  and  acid  water  on  iron.  The  s 
scale 
The  proportion  of  organic  matter  is  seen  to  vary  greatly. 
As  boiler-crusts  usually  contain  magnesium  hydrate  only,  the  rm 
absorption  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  air  by  the  crust  after  removal. 

IOCOCM              O        CMt^COCO 

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1 

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Number  

I 

Pressure  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

::::::      :  :^^-- 

;••..•• 

:  i  i     .  i-rcT  '•  B  • 

O    .  ^     -"^OH     •  o  £ 

«  ^Q^  ;  ^^  •  *s  _3 

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64 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Scale. — Prof.  V.  B.  Lewes,  Inst.  Nav.  Archts.,  vol.  30,  332, 
gives  these  analyses  of  incrustations  formed  in  the  boilers  of 
steamers  using  fresh  river-water,  brackish  water  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  and  sea-water  respectively: 


River. 

Brackish. 

Sea. 

Calcium  carbonate         

,    75.85 
3.68 
2.56 
0.45 
7.66 
2.96 
3.64 
3.20 

100.00 

43.65 
34.78 
4.34 
0.56 
7.52 
3.44 
1.55 
4.16 

100.00 

0.97 
85.53 
3.39 
2.79 
1.10 
0.32 
Trace 
5.90 

100.00 

'  '        sulphate 

Magnesium  hydrate 

Sodium  chloride                             .... 

Silica                                      

Oxides  of  iron  and  alumina    

Organic  matter 

Moisture 

Total                     

ANALYSES  OF  Six  SPECIMENS  OF  SCALE.     (PROF.  CHANDLER.*) 

Averages. 

Sulphate  of  lime 56.49 

Carbonate  of  lime 18  11 

Basic  carbonate  of  magnesia 19 . 77 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina 0 . 69 

Silica 3.81 

Organic  matter 

Water..  1.62 


100.00 
W.  E.  Ridenour  f  classifies  boiler-scales  in  this  way : 

A.  The  calcium-sulphate  scales; 

B.  The  calcium-carbonate  scales; 

C.  The  silica  scales ; 

D.  The  magnesia  scales. 

The  class  B  scales  are  moderately  soft.  The  class  A  scales 
are,  as  a  rule,  very  hard  and  porcelain-like,  and  can  be  told  with 
the  aid  of  a  magnifying-glass  by  their  glassy  or  vitreous  appear- 
ance. 

Class  C  scales  are  strange  and  interesting  and  most  common 
in  the  Southern  States,  though  occurring  in  other  quarters. 

The  silica  scales  have  no  characteristic  physical  properties. 


*  Tower,  p.  81. 


f  Jour  Frank.  Inst.,  Vol.  152,  p.  113. 


BOILER-SCALE. 

SILICATE  SCALE  ANALYSES. 


65 


i. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Calcium  carbonate  

Per  Cent. 
36   40 

Per  Cent. 

7  47 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

'  '        oxide     

7  32 

21  94 

36  42 

5  42 

'  '        sulphate 

3  95 

Silica 

41  00 

51  07 

40  51 

48  02 

Magnesium  hydrate 

50 

2  74 

3  04 

3  58 

1    Louisiana;  2.  New  Jersey;  3.  Olympia,  Wash. ;  4.  Pennsylvania. 

Class  D,  or  magnesium  scales,  has  been  the  subject  of  differ- 
ences between  chemists,  but  the  hydrate  is  the  generally  accepted 
combination. 

A  Texas  scale  contained  82.95  per  cent  of  magnesium  hydrate, 
7.59  per  cent  of  calcium  sulphate,  and  3.10  per  cent  of  silica. 

Mr.  Ridenour  refers  to  a  scale  96  per  cent  calcium  carbonate 
which  came  from  near  the  feed-pipe  where  the  water  receives  its 
first  high  heat;  driving  off  carbonic  acid  and  precipitating  the 
carbonate,  the  calcium  sulphate  passes  on  in  the  boiler  and  is 
found  in  another  scale  76  per  cent  calcium  sulphate. 

V.  B.  Lewes  mentions  the  variety  in  chemical  composition  of 
scales  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  same  boiler. 

From  analyses,  Didos,  in  reviewing  European  practice,  says 
more  than  75  per  cent  of  scale  deposited  from  river-water  is  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  only  3  per  cent  sulphate  of  lime,  while  for 
brackish  water  the  proportions  are  nearly  equal,  40  per  cent  each. 

For  sea- water  the  other  extreme  is  reached,  for  we  find  85  per 
cent  of  sulphate  and  less  than  1  per  cent  of  carbonate. 

Hydrate  of  magnesia  is  not  over  4  per  cent  in  any  of  these 
cases ;  its  presence,  however,  causes  harder  scale  than  otherwise 
would  be  the  case. 

PITTSBURGH,  PA.,  EXPERIMENTS. 

In  order  to  find  out  the  effect  of  using  filtered  water  in  the 
boilers  at  the  Brilliant  Pumping  Station,*  a  series  of  tests  were 
made,  using  a  locomotive-type  boiler  and  water  as  follows: 

No.  1.  Effluent  from  the  sand-filters; 

No.  2.  Effluent  from  the  mechanical  filters; 

No.  3.  Unfiltered  water. ' 


Report  of  Pittsburgh  Filtration  Com.,  1899,  p.  216. 


66 


BOILER-WATERS. 


The  general  dimensions  of  the  locomotive-type  boiler  were; 

Horse-power,  at   12  sq.  ft.  of  heating-sur- 
face per  H.P 30 

Diameter  of  shell 40  inches 

Length 14  feet 

Height 8    ' ' 

Tubes,  diameter 48    "     Sins. 

Tubes,  length 93  inches 

Heating-surface 369  square  feet 

Length  of  furnace 50  inches 

Width    "       "      40      " 

Gas  was  used  for  fuel  from  an  8-inch  diameter  main  in  which 
a  pressure  of  about  "  8  inches  of  water  "  was  maintained.  The 
details  of  the  burners  do  not  especially  interest  us  here;  the  gas 
burned  had  its  flow  maintained  at  about  20  cubic  feet  per  minute. 
Boilers  No.  1  and  No.  2  were  fed  with  water  by  injectors; 
No.  3  was  fed  directly  from  the  city  main,  under  140  pounds 
pressure. 

After  operating  the  boilers  about  two  months,  samples  of  the 
.scale  and  sediment  were  collected  and  analyzed  as  follows: 


Parts  by  Weight. 


Number  of  sample  

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

Weight  in  grams 

19  88 

40  02 

29  91 

Calcium  carbonate 

33  11 

17  78 

32  11 

3  79 

7  36 

1  82 

'  '        sulphate 

52  03 

56  98 

47  46 

3  77 

30  23 

2  38 

Magnesium  carbonate  .... 
Sodium  chloride           .... 

1.99 
0.00 

3.21 
0  00 

1.96 
0.78 

0.00 
88  32 

1.54 
53  82 

0.70 
0  00 

Iron  and  aluminum  oxide  . 

2.76 

5.20 

1.64 

0.40 

2.20 

85.86 

Insoluble  matter  

10.11 

16.83 

16.05 

3.72 

4.85 

9.24 

Total 

100  00 

100  00 

100  00 

100  00 

100  00 

100  00 

Scale  3*2  inch  thick  in  each. 

c'o 

i 

1 

io 

73 

73 

'o'o 

No.  1.  Hand,  tenacious. 

2    ^ 

2    N. 

o 

i  . 

i 

•Sg  . 

•"    2.       "       brittle, 

°  ~S 

O   -4J5  CO 

^   & 

-  -^  S 

00  -9 

cracks  off  easily. 
No.  3.  Soft  and  powdery. 

111 

ill 

N 

2"^^ 
En 

P 

II 

£ 

pi 

After  the  boilers  were  finally  blown  out  they  were  returned  to 
their  makers,  who  cleaned  them,  and  had  the  scale  again  analyzed, 


BOILER-SCALE.  67 

but  as  the  samples  analyzed  are  not  from  the  same  place  in  each, 
comparisons  cannot  be  made,  so  the  results  are  not  given  here. 

After  a  thorough  examination  by  a  boiler  expert,  these  three 
boilers,  which  were  new  when  tests  were  begun,  were  judged 
by  him  as  follows:  "  In  our  opinion  boiler  No.  3  is  in  the  best 
condition,  for  while  there  is  considerable  scale  and  sediment,  it 
is  soft,  adheres  loosely,  and  can  easily  be  washed  off  and  removed. 

"  The  other  boilers  we  would  consider  on  a  par,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  the  rivets  in  No.  2  are  badly  corroded,  and  the 
tubes  have  a  thicker  coating  than  either  of  the  others.  Con- 
sidering all  things,  we  believe  the  boiler  to  be  in  the  worst  condi- 
tion of  the  three." 

This  boiler,  No.  2,  used  water  from  the  mechanical  filters,  and 
the  scale  from  this  filtered  water  was  very  hard  and  porcelain-like. 

The  water  supplied  to  No.  3  boiler  and  filtered  for  the  other 
two  boilers  was  of  a 

Total  hardness.     3 . 51  4 . 53  3 . 99    1 

Alkalinity 3.10  3.41  3.15     I  parts  per 

Sulphuric  acid. .     1.04  1.55  0.93     |    100,000 

Chlorine 2.42  2.47  2.42 

June  July  August 


1898 

An  analysis  of  sample  of  raw  water  taken  September  19,  1898, 
gave,  in  parts  per  100,000: 

Total  solids 12 . 70 

Loss  on  ignition 4 . 30 

Calcium  oxide,  CaO 2 .04 

Magnesium  oxide,  MgO 0 . 49 

Sulphuric  acid,  SO3. 1 .61 

Chlorine,  Cl 2 . 20 

Silica,  SiO2 0 . 10 

Iron  oxide,  Fe2O3 0.01 


CHAPTER  III. 
CORROSION. 

CORROSION  is  the  strongest  destructive  force  acting  against  the 
life  of  a  boiler. 

All  natural  waters  are  more  or  less  corrosive,  for  they  all  carry 
carbonic-acid  gas  and  free  oxygen,  which  are  each  capable  of 
corrosive  action;  if  the  water  also  has  salts  in  solution,  they  render 
it  more  corrosive. 

In  a  general  way  iron  is  more  capable  of  resisting  corrosion 
than  steel,  though  English  mild  steel  is  more  liable  to  corrosion 
than  iron. 

In  steam-boiler  practice  corrosion  exists  in  two  forms: 

1.  Externally; 

2.  Internally;    as,  uniform  corrosion,  wasting,  pitting  or  honey- 
combing, and  grooving. 

The  first,  external,  is  due  to  the  atmosphere  or  setting,  and  ashes 
under  boilers.  The  second,  internal,  is  due  to  the  corrosive  proper- 
ties of  the  feed -water,  and  quality  of  material  composing  the  boiler- 
shells,  and  is  met  by  special  treatment  of  the  water,  and  in  some 
cases  by  hanging  plates  of  zinc  in  the  water-space,  of  which  we 
shall  speak  later. 

When  the  space  between  the  grate-bars  and  shell  of  the  boiler 
becomes  filled  with  ashes,  they  usually  get  wet  and  a  major  part 
stick  to  the  shell ;  especially  is  this  likely  to  happen  in  internally 
fired  boilers,  where  the  ashes  attach  themselves  to  the  shell,  and,  as 
they  absorb  moisture,  corrosion  is  soon  a  result. 

The  piece  represented  by  Fig.  7  was  taken  from  a  furnace  two 
years  old,  and  was  originally  a  full  quarter  of  an  inch  thick;  it  was 
taken  out  just  above  the  grate-bars,  and,  in  some  places  was  -h  to 

68 


CORROSION. 


69 


&  of  an  inch  thick.  The  same  condition  was  noticeable  about 
the  entire  boundary  of  the  fire-box.  As  a  cautionary  measure, 
never  cool  any  ashes  with  water  while  they  are  under  the  boiler- 
grates. 


*  i 

CQ  O 

1  o 

33  43 


W.  F.  Worthington  says  that  cold  sea-water  corrodes  iron 
and  steel  equally,  but  that  steel  suffers  much  more  than  iron  in 
hot  sea-water. 

Some  writers  assert  that  carbonic  acid  is  necessary  in  waters 
that  they  may  corrode  the  metal;  others  have  proved  that  it  is 


70  BOILER-WATERS. 

not  so.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  small  in  sea-water,  but  is 
greater  and  more  variable  in  river- waters . 

Land- water  may  be  easily  tested  for  organic  matter  by  adding 
a  little  sulphuric  acid,  H2SO4,  when,  if  organic  matter  is  present, 
the  water  will  turn  dark. 

All  corrosion  in  steam-boilers  may  be  called  oxidation,  which 
in  the  case  of  iron,  Fe,  occurs  in  these  common  forms: 

1.  Fe2O3  +  H20,  or  ordinary  yellow  iron-rust,  which   is  found 
on  the  outside  of  boilers. 

2.  Fe2Os,  °r  red  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  found  on  the  fire-box 
sheets  and  flues  as  pustules  or  pitting. 

3.  Fe3O4,  or  black  or  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,   which  occurs 
from  overheating,  resulting  from  excessive  scale  or  mud,  or  from 
electrolytic  action. 

Corrosion  is  frequently  caused  by  copper  ferrules  being  used 
on  ends  of  boiler-tubes  when  expanding  them  in  the  flue-sheet; 
on  this  account  soft-iron  ferrules  are  to  be  preferred. 

Howe's  experiments  have  shown  that  when  steel  plates  with 
mill-scale  and  plates  free  from  mill-scale  are  connected  galvanic- 
ally,  electric  currents  capable  of  measurement  are  set  up,  in  which 
case  the  mill-scale  is  as  active  as  the  copper. 

Tubes  pickled  in  acid  to  remove  scale  should  be  washed  in  lime- 
water  and  then  be  baked  for  several  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
400°  to  450°  F. 

Mill-scale  may  be  removed  from  the  outside  of  tubes  with  a  sand- 
blast, and  inside  by  using  a  bundle  of  rods  and  sand,  and  revolving 
the  entire  mass,  holding  the  tube  itself  rigid. 

Rear-Admiral  C.  M.  Aynsley,  C.B.,*  gives,  as  the  results  of 
investigations  by  the  Admiralty  Boiler  Committee,  these  causes  of 
corrosion : 

1.  Water  too  pure  for  constant  condensation; 

2.  Fatty  acids  from  oils  used  for  internal  lubrication; 

3.  Quantity  of  iron  used; 

4.  Particles  of  copper  carried  in  by  the  feed; 

5.  Galvanic  action ; 

6.  The  use  of  copper  feed-pipe; 

7.  Bad  management  of  boilers; 

*  Van  Nostrand's  Eng.  Mag.,  Nov.  1880. 


CORROSION.  71 

8.  Copper  in  solution; 

9.  Use  of  copper  internal  pipes; 

10.  Chemical  action; 

11.  Mechanical  action; 

12.  Softening  effect  of  distilled  water  upon  iron; 

13.  Absence  of  air  in  water  repeatedly  condensed; 

14.  Too  much  blowing; 

15.  Decomposition  of  water,  etc. 

One  of  the  worst  things  that  can  happen  to  a  boiler  is  to  have 
it  fired  at  irregular  intervals,  hot  for  a  time,  then  cold,  as  is  the 
case  with  some  heating-boilers,  and  also  those  in  fire-engines. 
The  amount  of  corrosion  in  some  instances  of  the  above  kinds  of 
treatment  may  be  considerable. 

In  the  larger  cities  fire-engines  are  kept  under  steam  con- 
tinuously, and  while  providing  steam  pressure  at  the  moment 
they  go  to  a  fire,  the  results  are  also  exceedingly  more  favorable 
to  a  longer  life  to  the  boiler  than  if  they  were  irregularly  fired. 

Extensive  internal  corrosion  frequently  occurs  in  boilers  using 
water  that  has  been  passed  through  surface  condensers  over  and 
over  again. 

To  prevent  the  corrosion  add  sufficient  soda  to  the  feed-water 
to  make  the  water  in  the  boiler  alkaline,  and  place  rolled-zinc 
plates  in  good  metallic  and  electrical  connection  with  the  inside 
of  the  boiler  and  under  water,  so  that  no  part  of  the  boiler  is  more 
than  6  feet  from  the  zinc,  and  renew  the  zinc  when  it  is  wasted. 

To  prevent  corrosion  in  idle  boilers  fill  them  with  water  in 
which  about  50  pounds  of  common  soda  has  been  dissolved  to 
each  100  cubic  feet  of  water.  If  the  water  is  sufficiently  alkaline 
after  this  is  done,  a  bright  nail  hung  in  the  water  will  not  rust. 

The  French  navy  uses  this  system:  The  boilers  are  first  com- 
pletely filled  with  sufficient  water  and  a  solution  of  milk  of  lime 
or  soda  is  added  to  the  water.  The  solution  is  made  stronger  if 
the  tubes  are  large,  and  of  less  strength  if  they  are  small,  in  order 
to  avoid  any  danger  of  contracting  the  effective  area  by  deposit 
from  the  solution. 

The  outside  of  the  steel  or  iron  tubes  is  painted  with  red  lead 
or  tar  as  far  as  the  parts  are  accessible.  For  those  parts  which 
are  inaccessible  a  protective  coating  is  obtained  by  burning  tar 
under  them. 


72  BOILER-WATERS. 

In  the  American  navy  boilers  not  in  use  are  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  painted  with  a  mineral  oil. 

In  the  English  navy,  after  cleaning,  boilers  are  thoroughly 
dried  and  a  pan  of  charcoal  burned  in  them  to  consume  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  and  quicklime  is  used  to  absorb  any  moisture  that  may 
remain. 

To  prevent  rust  in  unused  boilers,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  them 
filled  with  water  and  the  exterior  well  painted. 

Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel. — Corrosion  of  iron  and  steel  has 
been  the  subject  of  investigation  of  several  Admiralty  committees. 
This  extract  from  their  report,  as  made  by  Mr.  Thos.  Turner,*  is 
to  the  point: 

The  differences  of  opinion  on  this  subject  have  arisen,  the  author 
believes,  on  account  of  conclusions  being  drawn  from  limited 
observation  or  special  circumstances,  while  much  confusion  has 
arisen  from  failing  to  recognize  that  the  conditions  in  fresh  water, 
salt  water,  the  interior  of  the  boiler,  or  in  diluted  acids  are  all 
different,  and  that  a  specimen  which  may  very  successfully  resist 
corrosion  in  one  of  these  cases  may  readily  oxidize  in  another. 

On  account  of  the  greater  uniformity  in  the  physical  properties 
of  steel,  and  the  laminated  character  of  iron,  it  was  anticipated 
in  the  early  days  of  the  use  of  mild  steel  that  it  would  resist  corro- 
sion much  better  than  wrought  iron.  Thus  Sir  L.  Bell  f  expressed 
the  opinion  that  the  cinder  in  wrought-iron  rails  would  set  up 
galvanic  currents  and  thus  lead  to  more  rapid  corrosion.  Experi- 
ence has,  however,  shown  that  on  lines  where  there  is  very  little 
traffic  and  the  chief  agent  of  destruction  is  corrosion,  wrought-iron 
rails  wear  better  than  steel. 

The  result  of  the  experiments  of  the  Admiralty  committees, 
which  were  appointed  to  consider  the  causes  of  the  deterioration 
of  boilers,  and  which  issued  reports  in  1877  and  1880,  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  in  all  cases  wrought  iron  resisted  corrosion  better 
than  steel. 

Where  the  conditions  were  not  severe  the  differences  observed 
were  not  great,  but  where  the  plates  were  daily  dipped  in  water 
and  exposed  during  the  rest  of  the  time  to  the  action  of  the  atmos- 

*  Rowan,  Steam  Boilers,  pp.  326,  327 

t  Jour.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  Vol.  I,  1878,  p.  97 


CORROSION.  73 

phere,  the  superiority  of  iron  was  very  marked,  while  common 
iron  was  less  affected  by  corrosion  than  best  Yorkshire  iron,  which 
is  in  accordance  with  the  statement  of  Gmelin,  that  phosphorus 
diminishes  corrosion  in  iron.  The  following  percentages  in  favor 
of  iron  were  obtained  in  these  experiments: 

Common  iron  resisted  corrosion  better  than 

Yorkshire  iron 9.6  per  cent 

Yorkshire  iron  resisted  corrosion  better  than 

mild  steel 16.0  "  " 

In  another  series  of  experiments,  conducted  by  Mr.  D.  Phillips, 
in  Cardigan  Bay,  and  lasting  for  seven  years,  it  was  found  that 
the  average  corrosion  of  mild  steel  during  the  whole  period  was 
126  per  cent  more  than  wrought  iron.* 

Independent  experiments  conducted  by  Mr.  T.  Andrews  f 
also  showed  that  wrought  iron  corroded  less  rapidly  than  mild  steel 
when  the  cleaned  metallic  surfaces  were  exposed  to  the  action 
of  sea-water. 

The  conclusions  of  the  Admiralty  Committee  and  of  Mr.  Phillips 
aroused  much  adverse  criticism,  and  it  was  shown  that  though 
steel  is  more  affected  by  ordinary  atmospheric  corrosion,  it  is  not 
usually  more  affected  when  in  the  form  of  a  steel  boiler. 

This  was  stated  by  Mr.  W.  Parker,}  who  based  his  conclusions 
on  the  result  of  over  1100  actual  examinations  of  boilers,  and  his 
observations  were  confirmed  by  experienced  makers  and  users  of 
boilers,  who  took  part  in  the  discussion  of  his  paper. 

Sir  W.  Siemens  says  as  manganese  in  mild  steel  is  increased 
the  tendency  to  corrode  becomes  greater. 

G.  J.  Snelus  has  ascribed  the  pitting  in  steel  to  the  irregular 
distribution  of  manganese  in  the  metal. 

Mallet  says  the  alloys  of  potassium,  sodium,  barium,  aluminum, 
manganese,  silver,  platinum,  antimony,  and  arsenic  with  iron 
corrode  more  rapidly  than  pure  iron;  while  the  presence  of  nickel, 
cobalt,  tin,  copper,  mercury,  and  chromium  affords  protection, 
the  effect  being  in  each  case  in  the  order  given. 

The  reasons  usually  given  for  the  corrosion  of  boiler-tubes  are: 


*  Inst.  C.  E.,  Vol.  65,  73;  Inst.  Mar.  Eng.,  May  1890. 
t  Inst.  C,  E.,  Vol.  77,  p.  323;  Vol.  82,  p.  281. 
t  Jour.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  Vol.  I,  1881,  p.  39. 


74  BOILER-WATERS. 

1.  Fatty  acids,  from  decomposition  of  animal  or  vegetable 

oils; 

2.  Hydrochloric  acid,  due  to  decomposition  of  MgCl2  in  sea- 

water  at  high  temperature; 

3.  Galvanic  action; 

4.  Use  of  salt ; 

5.  Presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  water. 

Com.  Walter  F.  Worthington  *  says:  "Direct  experiments 
have  shown  that  under  certain  conditions  it  is  possible  to  decom- 
pose magnesium  chloride  (MgCU)  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F., 
setting  free  hydrochloric  acid  (HC1).  When  such  action  takes 
place  it  appears  that  the  HC1  is  always  immediately  appropriated 
by  some  base  other  than  the  boiler  metal." 

Mr.  Worthington  has  often  searched  for  but  never  dis- 
covered any  acidity  by  testing  the  water  with  litmus  paper, 
nor  met  any  other  engineer  who  had  found  acid  in  our  (U.  S.) 
naval  boilers.  Lewis  states  that  "  chloride  of  iron  is  not  found 
in  the  water  of  the  boiler,  which  would  be  the  case  if  any  corrosion 
or  pitting  were  due  to  the  action  of  free  hydrochloric  acid."  Then, 
again,  our  naval  boilers  are  not  under  steam  on  an  average  of 
more  than  one-third  of  their  time,  and  no  HC1  can  be  generated 
when  the  water  is  cold.  The  usual  practice  is  to  fill  all  boilers 
with  fresh  water  at  the  start,  and  to  use  only  about  half  of  the 
boilers  for  steaming,  the  others  serving  as  fresh-water  tanks.  In 
this  way  but  a  small  part  of  the  make-up  feed  is  taken  from  the  sea. 

We  may  conclude  that  little  if  any  damage  is  done  to  our  tubes 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  MgCb  in  sea-water. 

Boiler  Corrosion  from  Rain-water.— Trans.  Soc.  of  Steam- 
users  of  Paris  f  contains  an  account  of  the  destructive  corrosion 
of  a  steam-boiler  which  had  been  fed  with  rain-water  collected 
from  a  zinc  roof  over  a  shop  located  in  a  district  in  which  the 
atmosphere  was  heavily  charged  with  acid  vapors. 

While  pure  rain-water  itself,  as  we  know,  frequently  produces 
serious  corrosion,  it  appears  that  in  this  instance  the  water  became 
acidulated  through  absorption  of  the  acid  fumes,  and  not  only 
attacked  the  metal  roof,  but  also  the  boiler,  and  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  cause  it  to  be  condemned. 

*  Journal  of  the  A.  S.  Nav.  Engrs.,  Vol.  12,  p.  589. 
t  R.R  Gazette,  1893,  p.  771. 


CORROSION. 


75 


Chemical  analysis  of  the  water  showed  it  to  contain  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  in  carboys  were  driven  to  one 
factory  on  a  road  that  was  directly  over  a  cistern  to  which  all 
steam-drips  were  run;  in  some  way  a  carboy  broke  at  this  point, 
and  rather  than  be  compelled  to  pay  for  the  loss  of  the  acid,  the 
most  of  which  went  into  the  cistern  and  from  there  was  pumped 
to  the  boiler,  the  man  in  charge  told  some  plausible  story  other 
than  the  true  one. 


(From  "  The  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  I  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.  8.— A  Corroded  Brace. 

The  corrosion  shown  in  Figs.  8  and  9  was  the  result  of  this 
accident,  and  never  again  occurred  in  this 
factory  from  any  cause. 

The  corrosive  action  was  very  intense  at 
the  rear  end  of  the  boi}er:  the  plates  and 
tubes  began  to  pit  badly,  and  rivet-heads 
and  submerged  braces  wasted  away  rapidly. 

The  boiler-head,  Figs.  10  and  11,  was 
from  one  of  a  battery  of  boilers  at  a  coal- 
mine in  the  West. 

Contrary  to  advice,  water  impregnated 
with  the  products  of  the  mine  was  fed  to 
the  boilers;  the  severe  corrosion  resulting  is 
credited  to  the  sulphur  the  water  contained. 

In  some  places  the  corrosion  was  three- 
fifths  the  thickness  of  the  head,  originally  A  inch.     The  life  of  the 
boiler  was  eight  months.     Where  the  braces  were  attached  there 


(From  "  The  Locomotive," 
Hartford  S.  B.  1.  &  1.  Co.) 

FIG.  9. — A  Corroded 
Rivet. 


76  BOILER-WATERS. 

was  no  corrosive  action.      The  cause  of  the  lines  shown,  \  inch 
wide,  re  inch  deep,  has  not  been  satisfactorily  explained. 


(From  "  The  Locomotive."  Hartford  S.  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.   10. — Corroded   Boiler-head. 


Feed-water   taken    from   a   presumably   reliable   source   may, 
while  giving  good  results,  change  "•  without  notice  "  as  to  quality 


( From  "  Tbe  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  1.  &  1.  Co.) 

FIG.   11.— Corroded  Boiler-head. 


and  do  great  harm  unless  closely  watched,  as  in  one  case  where 
the  water  was  taken  from  a  rock-bottom  well  fed  by  a  spring, 
with  which  water  the  shell  of  the  boiler  was  free  from  pitting  or 
corrosion.  After  a  sewer  had  been  built  in  the  neighborhood  and 


CORROSION.  77 

cut  off  the  spring-water  supply,  the  surface  drainage,  including 
cesspool  and  other  contaminated  waters,  was  the  source  of  supply , 
resulting  in  the  grooved  and  pitted  plate  Fig.  12. 


(From  "The  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 
FIG.   12.— Grooved  and  Pitted  Plate. 

The  carbonate  of  ammonia  produced  by  fermentation  of  urine 
in  outhouses  is  a  particularly  destructive  substance  when  it  gets 
into  feed-water. 

The  Corrosive  Action  of  Chloride  of  Magnesium  is  well 
known. 

H.  Ost  prepared  a  paper  on  this  subject  *  which  has  been 
condensed  and  appeared  in  Engineering,  from  which  this  review 
is  taken. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  magnesium  chloride  attacks  the  iron 
of  boilers  because  it  splits  off  hydrochloric  acid.  Ost  contradicts 
this,  and  his  experiments  appear  to  be  fairly  conclusive.  The 
question  is  interesting  to  the  engineer,  because  magnesium  salts 
appear  in  many  boiler-waters,  and  in  large  quantities  in  sea- water. 
A.  Wagner  in  1875  conducted  some  experiments  on  the  action  of 
various  salts  contained  in  the  feed-water  for  boilers,  and  working 
at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  he  observed  that  the  iron  rusted 
in  the  presence  of  the  chlorides  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths 
when  the  air  had  access. 

When  air  was  excluded  only  magnesium  chloride  attacked  the 

*  Chemiker-Zeitung. 


78  BOILER-WATERS. 

iron.  The  corrosion  was  not  well  understood  then,  and  was  con- 
veniently ascribed  to  some  catalytic  action.  The  chloride  of 
magnesium  was  later  thought  to  be  decomposed  in  boiling  water, 
but  not  unless  it  is  present  as  hydrate,  MgCl2.6H2O,  and  the 
temperature  above  223°  F. 

Ost  has  only  experimented  in  closed  vessels,  so  as  not  to  be 
troubled  by  ordinary  oxidation.  Water  in  which  some  magnesium 
chloride  was  dissolved,  when  distilled  from  glass  vessels,  was  always 
found  to  be  neutral  and  free  from  chlorine.  The  distillate  also  re- 
mained neutral  when  copper  or  tinned  copper  boilers  were  used  for 
the  distillation,  at  a  pressure  of  several  atmospheres;  but  some 
decomposition  took  place  in  these  cases,  for  a  certain  amount  of 
tin  or  copper  was  dissolved  by  the  water.  Ost  then  had  a  small 
experimental  boiler  specially  constructed  in  Krupp's  works,  at 
Essen.  It  is  a  horizontal  cylinder  with  hollow  bottom,  pressed 
out  of  a  block  of  Siemens-Martin  steel,  and  closed  in  front  by  a 
flange  and  a  steel  plate,  packed  with  lead.  The  capacity  of  the 
boiler  is  nearly  three  quarts,  and  it  was  generally  charged  with 
two  quarts  of  water,  and  the  heating  by  gas-burners  continued 
until  one  quart  of  the  water  had  evaporated.  The  temperature 
was  360°  F.,  corresponding  to  a  pressure  of  about  10  atmospheres. 
After  each  experiment  the  inside  of  the  boiler  was  found  to  be 
coated  with  a  black,  adhesive  crust  of  the  iron  oxide,  Fe3O4,  a 
mixture  of  oxide  and  protoxide.  This  oxidation  Ost  ascribes  to 
a  decomposition  of  water  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  which  takes 
place  whenever  the  hot  feed -water  comes  in  contact  with  the  bare 
iron.  Ost  does  not  refer  to  electrolysis;  some  might  possibly 
occur.  The  water  was  charged  with  10  per  cent  solutions  of 
various  salts.  The  generation  of  hydrogen  was  most  energetic, 
as  much  as  7.5  cubic  inches  of  hydrogen  being  found  in  a  total 
quantity  of  8.8  cubic  inches  of  gas  collected  in  the  presence  of 
calcium  chloride,  potassium  chloride,  and  potassium  sulphate. 
No  iron  was  dissolved  in  these  cases,  however,  except  when  mag- 
nesium chloride  or  magnesium  sulphate  was  present;  but  the 
chloride  of  magnesium  dissolved  as  much  as  2.08  grains  of  iron 
per  quart  of  the  10  per  cent  solution.  Now,  we  do  not  understand 
how  magnesium  sulphate  could  split  up  so  as  to  be  acid,  and  no 
free  acid  was  observed  in  the  case  of  magnesium  chloride  either, 
although  the  steam  pressure  was  high.  In  Ost's  opinion,  the  attack 


CORROSION.  79 

of  the  iron  is  primarily  due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  water; 
the  oxygen  oxidizes  the  iron,  and  the  magnesium  salt  reacts  with 
the  protoxide  of  iron  so  formed,  with  the  result  that  some  of  the 
iron  is  dissolved,  while  magnesium  hydrate  is  precipitated.  This 
reaction  takes  place  according  to  the  formula 


The  sulphate  of  magnesium  would  react  similarly.  In  neither 
case  is  the  reaction  complete,  however;  that  is  to  say,  the  reaction 
does  not  proceed  until  all  the  magnesium  salt  has  been  trans- 
formed, but  only  until  a  certain  quantity  of  magnesium  hydrate 
has  been  formed.  It  then  ceases  until  the  magnesium  hydrate  is 
removed,  or  until  the  equilibrium  is  disturbed  in  some  other  manner. 
"  In  support  of  this  view,  Ost  treated  iron  with  hot  solutions 
of  magnesium  salts  in  glass  vessels  on  a  water-bath,  where  the 
temperature  could  not  rise  above  the  boiling-point.  Similar 
experiments  were  conducted  with  various  irons  and  steels  obtained 
from  the  Krupp  works,  including  nickel-steel,  and  also  with  flower- 
wire,  and  the  finely  divided  iron  employed  in  pharmacy.  These 
all  generated  hydrogen,  the  finely  divided  iron  most  (as  was  to  be 
expected),  and  the  nickel-steel  and  weld-iron  least.  The  more 
sulphur  the  iron  contains,  the  more  easily  it  will  be  attacked; 
silicon,  phosphorus,  manganese,  and  also  carbon,  seem  to  protect 
the  iron  to  a  certain  extent;  but  this  point  appears  to  require 
further  investigation.  The  behavior  of  the  iron  also  changes  with 
the  steam  pressure. 

,  "  Thus  magnesium  salts,  and  especially  magnesium  chloride, 
are  injurious  to  boilers,  though  probably  for  different  reasons  than 
are  generally  assumed.  There  is  a  remedy,  however.  At  higher 
pressures  the  magnesium  chloride  and  calcium  carbonate  interact, 
forming  calcium  chloride  (which  does  not  attack  the  iron),  mag- 
nesia (which  falls  out  as  mud),  and  carbonic  acid  (which  escapes 
with  the  steam).  The  escape  of  carbonic-acid  gas  begins  at  low 
steam  pressures;  and  though  the  reaction  is  never  complete,  it 
would  appear  from  Ost's  experiments  in  his  boiler  that  a  little 
carbonate  of  lime  suffices  to  prevent  the  corrosion  of  the  iron  by 
magnesium  salt;  he  estimates  that  we  need  only  a  quarter  as  much 
carbonate  as  we  have  magnesium  chloride.  The  precipitated 


80 


BOILER-WATERS. 


magnesia  does  not  swell  the  bulk  of  the  scale  in  such  cases,  because 
an  equivalent  amount  of  the  calcium  salt  is  dissolved.  Some  of 
the  rivers,  whose  contamination  with  magnesium  chloride  induced 
Ost  to  investigate  the  subject,  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  car- 
bonates and  bicarbonates  to  render  the  water  harmless  as  feed- 
water  from  this  point  of  view,  though  we  have  to  fear  the  forma- 
tion of  rust,  owing  to  the  decomposition  of  water  by  iron.  In 
sea-water  we  have  no  natural  carbonates  as  a  remedy,  and  the 
detrimental  action  of  the  magnesium  salts  that  are  always  present 
is  therefore  unchecked." 

Stillman  *  says :  Where  all  the  chlorine  is  not  in  combination 
with  the  sodium  and  potassium,  magnesium  chloride  is  usually 
present. 

This  compound  (MgCy,  while  not  scale-forming,  is  considered 
as  an  active  corrosive  agent,  upon  the  supposition  that  at  the 
temperature  of  100°  C.,  and  higher,  it  is  decomposed  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  formed  and  liberated. 

This  analysis  of  water,  from  a  driven  well  in  Florida,  is  an 
illustration  of  this,  and  was  complained  of  as  causing  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  scale,  and  also  the  corrosive  action  was  very 
marked. 


Grains  per 
Gallon. 

NaCl 

18  83 

KC1 

3  91 

MgCL     

6  06 

CaSO4  

11.49 

CaCO3  

17.08 

MgCO3 

8  40 

SiO2 

0  64 

Al2O3,Fe2O3  
Organic  

0.41 
8.05 

Corrosive  Action  of  Water. — A  Parsons  steam-turbine  in  Silesia 
underwent  but  one  repair  in  7000  running  hours;  that  was  the 
reseating  of  the  double-beat  admission-valve,  mainly  due  to  un- 
clean acid-holding  water. 

The  relative  corrosion  of  certain  metals,  taking  wrought  iron 
as  100,  is  thus  given  by  H.  M.  Howe: 


*  Eng.  Chemistry,  p.  50. 


CORROSION. 


81 


Metal. 

Sea-  water. 

Fresh 
Water. 

Weather 

Exposure. 

Average. 

Wrought  ir 

on              

100 

100 

100 

100 

Soft  steel 

114 

94 

103 

103 

3    per  cent 

nickel-steel 

83 

80 

67 

77 

26    "      " 

it         it 

32 

32 

30 

31 

Prof.  Ernst  Cohen,*  Amsterdam,  Holland,  says  that  chemically 
pure  copper  is  corroded  only  by  sea-water  if  atmospheric  air  can 
co-operate  in  its  action. 

Tests  made  with  electrolytic,  sheet-hammered,  cast,  and  com- 
mercial copper. 

Copper  is  corroded  if  sea-water,  air,  and  carbonic  acid  act  on  it 
simultaneously. 

Condenser-tubes,  33.40  per  cent  zinc  and  66.60  per  cent  copper, 
corrode  only  in  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  and  air. 

Tin  is  corroded  in  the  presence  of  sea-water  and  atmospheric 
air. 

Oxide  of  copper  and  nickel  resist  even  a  prolonged  action  of 
sea-water  and  atmospheric  air,  while  aluminum  bronzes,  though 
often  recommended,  are  strongly  attacked  in  a  short  time. 

Ordinary  steel  castings  when  placed  in  sea-water  in  contact 
with  nickel-steel  result  in  bad  corrosion  of  the  ordinary  steel. 

Corrosion  by  Sea-water. — Pieces  of  iron  low  in  phosphorus  in 
contact  with  iron  high  in  phosphorus  showed  that  that  low  in 
phosphorus  formed  the  anode  and  was  badly  corroded,  and  the 
other  formed  the  cathode  and  was  protected  from  corrosion. 

Herr  Diegel  suggests  the  use  of  certain  alloys  rather  than 
copper  pipes,  after  tests  with  alloys  of  copper  with  iron,  zinc, 
nickel,  and  aluminum,  the  copper-nickel  alloys  being  18  to  42 
per  cent  nickel. 

Rods  of  these  alloys  suspended  in  salt  water  for  twenty-five 
months  showed  results  most  favorable  to  the  copper-nickel  alloys. 

The  water  action  was  largely  influenced  by  the  metals  alloyed 
with  the  copper,  for  the  iron-bronze  was  deeply  corroded,  while 
the  nickel  alloy  was  protected.  Chemical  analysis  showed  that 
"  pure  copper  "  is,  in  general,  more  rapidly  corroded  than  metal 
containing  impurities,  the  ordinary  commercial  material  being 
acted  upon  less  rapidly  than  electrolytic  copper. 
*  Inst.  Nav.  Arch.,  Vol.  44,  p.  215. 


82  BOILER-WATERS. 

The  presence  of  oxide  in  copper  increases  its  liability  to  corro- 
sion. Apparently  the  presence  of  arsenic  in  copper  hastens  the 
corrosive  action.  Where  oxidation  has  occurred,  arsenic  seems 
to  retard  corrosion. 

Attaching  pieces  of  zinc  to  copper  pipes  is  the  usual  method 
employed  to  prevent  corrosion,  as  it  serves  the  purpose  of  an 
anode  to  the  copper,  and  itself  is  corroded  by  the  galvanic  action 
set  up. 

Where  pieces  of  corroded  zinc  fall  on  copper  pipes  and  remain, 
excessive  corrosion  of  the  copper  is  produced,  and  hence  we  have 
an  objection  to  its  use.  Herr  Diegel  speaks  of  the  large  variety 
of  effects  from  an  equally  large  number  of  causes,  as  a  result  of 
using  copper  pipes  on  shipboard. 

In  some  cases  there  is  pitting  over  the  whole  inside  surface  of 
the  pipes,  while  in  others  limited  local  corrosion  is  seen  as  cutting 
and  grooving. 

This  action  seems  to  be  caused  by  high  heating  when  brazing 
on  flange-fittings. 

This  local  corrosion  may  come  from 

1.  Variety  in  copper; 

2.  Air  in  the  pipes; 

3.  Electrolytic  action. 

The  rate  of  corrosion  in  alloys  seems  to  be  governed  by  their 
relative  position  in  the  galvanic  scale;  metals  which  resisted  corro- 
sion well  when  in  contact  with  metals  electro-negative  towards 
them  corroded  badly  when  in  contact  with  electro-positive  metal. 
Electrolytic  copper,  99.955  per  cent  pure,  in  sea-water  with  ordinary 
commercial  copper,  98.98  per  cent  pure,  with  0.6  per  cent  arsenic, 
was  corroded  rapidly,  fully  thirteen  times  as  fast  as  the  commercial 
copper. 

Two  ships'  hulls,  the  one  sheathed  with  the  pure,  the  other 
with  the  impure  copper,  gave  similar  results,  so  that  the  cause 
was  not  in  any  galvanic  action. 

A  sheet  of  pure  copper  oxidized  in  spots  was  immersed  and 
the  bare  portions  rapidly  corroded,  showing  a  galvanic  couple 
in  the  sheet  itself,  the  pure  copper  being  the  anode. 

Annealed  copper  corroded  less  rapidly  than  hard-drawn  copper 
of  a  higher  resistance  and  elastic  limit. 


CORROSION.  83 

All  of  these  results  were  obtained  after  tests  lasting  2  to  2^ 
years  had  been  completed.* 

Action  of  Sea- water  on  Cast  Iron.  —  W.  H.  Thorpe,  in 
Engineering,  1905,  gives  his  experience  with  4^  cast-iron  piles : 

"  In  no  case  was  there  any  general  softening  of  the  whole 
thickness,  but  merely  a  distinct  change  for  some  definite  thick- 
ness inward.  It  was  most  marked  close  to  the  ground  and  gen- 
erally disappeared  at  a  height  of  5  feet.  Different  piles  in  the 
same  structure  did  not  show  the  same  amount  of  softening.  The 
injured  material  taken  from  a  pile  thirty-six  years  old  was  soft, 
greasy,  and  black,  but  after  exposure  to  the^ir  for  a  few  hours 
became  a  dry  yellow  powder." 

Corrosion.  —  Boiler-tubes  corroded  by  forcing  air  through 
tubes  wetted  by  distilled  water  showed  a  loss  in  weight  in  six- 
teen weeks  of  0.315  grain  per  square  inch,  while  when  the  water 
was  made  alkaline  the  loss  was  reduced  to  0.1  grain. f 

Method  of  Testing  Water  for  Corrosiveness. — For  marine  prac- 
tice, where  engineers  and  firemen  are  off  shore  a  long  time,  it  is 
well  to  know  how  to  test  the  feed-water  one  is  using,  and  for  this 
purpose  there  is  no  better  guide  than  the  method  of  testing  for 
corrosiveness  as  given  by  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  in 
Marine  Steam,  from  which  the  following  is  taken  with  their  per- 
mission : 

"The first  thing  in  testing,  as  is  well  known,  is  to  see  that  the 
color  of  the  water,  as  shown  in  the  gauge-glass,  is  neither  black 
nor  red.  The  only  color  admissible  is  slightly  dirty  gray  or  straw 
color,  unless  the  water  is  transparent.  So  long  as  water  is  red  or 
black,  corrosion  is  going  on,  and  it  must  immediately  be  neu- 
tralized by  freely  using  lime  or  soda,  and  frequently  scumming 
and  blowing  off,  the  make-up  being  provided  by  the  evaporator. 

"  The  salinometer  is  not  a  very  accurate  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  quantity  of  sea-water  in  boiler-water,  but  the  apparatus 
here  described  gives  a  convenient  and  accurate  method  of  ascer- 
taining the  exact  number  of  grains  of  chlorine  per  gallon  in  the 
water  tested.  It  is  based  on  the  scheme  for  the  volumetric  deter- 
mination of  chlorine  devised  by  Fr.  Mohr,  an  eminent  chemist,  and 
requires  one  graduated  bottle,  one  bottle  of  silver  solution  con- 

*  Eng.  News,  Vol.  50,  p.  173.  f  Eng.   Rec.,  Vol.  51,  p.  187. 


84 


BOILER-WATERS. 


taining  4.738  grams  of  silver  nitrate  to  1000  grams  of  distilled 
water,  and  one  bottle  of  chromate  indicator,  which  is  a  10  per  cent 
solution  of  pure  neutral  potassium  chromate. 

"  To  Make  Test. — Fill  the  graduated  bottle  to  the  zero-mark 
with  the  water  to  be  tested;  add  one  drop  of  the  chromate  indi- 
cator, then  solwly  add  the  silver  solution;  keep 
shaking  the  bottle.  On  nearing  the  full  amount 
of  silver  solution  required  the  water  will  turn  red 
for  a  moment  and  then  back  to  yellow  again 
when  shaken.  The  moment  it  turns  red  and  re- 
mains red,  stop  adding  the  silver.  The  reading 
on  the  graduated  bottle  at  the  level  of  the  liquid 
will  then  show  the  amount  of  chlorine  in  grains 
per  gallon.  For  example,  if  a  permanent  red 
color  is  shown  when  the  level  is  midway  between 
150  and  200  there  are  175  grains  of  chlorine  per 
gallon. 

"The  principle  of  the  process  depends  upon  the 
fact  that  if  some  of  this  silver  solution  be  dropped 
into  water  containing  a  chloride,  a  curdy  white 
precipitate  of  chloride  of  silver  will  be  formed. 
If  there  is  also  present  in  the  water  enough 
potassium  chromate  to  give  a  yellow  color,  the 
white  precipitate  will  continue  to  perform  as  be- 
fore, owing  to  the  silver  having  a  greater  affinity 
for  chlorine  than  for  the  chromic  acid  in  the 
chromate.  But,  at  the  moment  when  all  the 
chlorine  in  the  sample  has  been  converted,  the 
silver  will  attack  the  yellow  potassium  chromate, 
and  chromate  of  silver  will  be  formed,  which  is 
red  in  color.  The  amount  of  chlorine  present  is, 
Graduated  Bottle  therefore,  shown  by  the  amount  of  silver  solution 
required  to  convert  it  all  to  silver  chloride,  and 
the  determination  of  the  exact  point  at  which  the  chloride  pre- 
cipitate ceases  to  form  is  greatly  facilitated  by  observing  when 
the  chromate  indicator  turns  from  yellow  to  red. 

"  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  the  silver  solution  until  the  color 
becomes  very  red,  as  the  delicacy  of  the  reaction  would  be  de- 
stroyed, but  the  change  from  yellow  to  yellowish  red  must  be 


— -  'tOQ 


CORROSION.  85 

distinct  and  must  not  change  on  shaking.  The  sample  of  water 
to  be  tested  should  be  neutral,  as  free  acids  dissolve  the  silver 
chromate.  If  it  should  be  acid,  neutralize  by  adding  sodium 
carbonate.  Slight  alkalinity  does  not  interfere  with  the  reaction, 
but  should  the  example  be  very  alkaline,  it  may  be  neutralized 
with  nitric  acid. 

"Should  it  happen  that  the  color  does  not  change  within  the 
limits  of  the  graduations,  the  sample  may  be  tested  by  diluting 
with  distilled  water.  For  example,  add  three  parts  of  distilled 
water  to  one  part  of  the  sample.  If,  then,  on  testing  the  mixture, 
the  color  changes  at  200,  the  number  of  grains  per  gallon  in  the 
original  sample  will  be  four  times  this  reading,  or  800  grains. 

"The  chlorine  should  be  kept  down  to  the  least  possible  amount 
— say  below  50  grains  per  gallon — as  the  nearer  the  boiler-water 
is  to  fresh  water  the  safer  the  boilers  are  against  corrosion. 

"  If  the  water  is  so  corrosive  as  to  be  acid,  blue  litmus  paper 
which  has  not  been  allowed  to  become  deteriorated  through  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere  (keep  in  a  bottle  with  a  glass  stopper) 
will  turn  slightly  red.  If  a  change  in  color  is  not  apparent  at  once, 
it  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  solution  a  few  minutes  and 
then  carefully  dried  and  compared  with  an  unused  sample. 

"  Another  method  is  to  put  into  it  a  few  drops  of  a  chemical 
called  methyl-orange.  This  methyl-orange  gives  a  yellow  color 
so  long  as  the  water  is  alkaline,  but  if  turned  pink  it  shows  that 
the  water  is  acid  and  therefore  highly  corrosive.  This  latter  test 
is  more  sensitive  than  the  litmus-paper  test  and  should  be  used 
in  preference. 

"  A  testing-kit  containing  the  graduated  bottle  and  the  solutions 
referred  to,  also  strips  of  blue  and  red  litmus  paper,  neatly  packed 
in  a  padded  box,  is  supplied  by  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company 
with  all  boiler  installations  intended  for  salt-water  service." 

A  Peculiar  Example  of  Scale  Formation  Following  Corrosion 
is  given  by  a  boiler  in  one  of  the  small  vessels  in  the  U.  S.  Navy 
after  several  months'  experience  on  the  Cuban  blockade  in  1898, 
during  the  Spanish-American  war. 

The  boiler  in  question  was  a  Yarrow  boiler,  consisting  of  a 
steam-drum  to  which  are  attached  two  banks  of  straight  tubes, 
one  of  which  extends  obliquely  down  on  either  side  of  the  grate. 
The  upper  ends  were  expanded  into  the  steam-drum,  the  lower 


86  BOILER-WATERS. 

ends  expanded  into  a  practically  flat  plate,  forming  the  top  or 
cover  of  a  water-chamber  or  mud-drum. 

The  tubes  were  1-inch-diameter  copper  tubes,  very  closely 
set  and  staggered. 

When  repairs  were  made  the  tubes  were  found  to  be  con- 
siderably pitted  and  corroded  on  the  exterior,  and,  in  some  cases, 
entirely  eaten  through  and  away.  In  the  case  of  one  tube  5 
inches  of  its  length  was  gone  and  the  free  ends  were  as  thin  as 
paper. 

Unaware  of  these  conditions,  the  engineer  steamed  into  port 
with  a  steam  pressure  of  250  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the  boilers. 

The  spaces  between  tubes  were  solid  with  hard  scale  at  the 
above  break,  and  no  leakage  was  noticed. 

Marine  boilers  of  this  class  are  supposed  to  use  only  fresh  water 
from  distilling  apparatus  aboard  ship,  but  frequently  sea-water 
must  be  used,  the  sea-salt  accumulating  on  the  tubes  resulting 
in  overheating  or  burning.  Then  cracks  sometimes  show  them- 
selves, and  the  salt  water  mingles  with  the  soot  and  ashes,  and 
further  leaks  cannot  be  seen  readily  at  the  point  of  rupture,  and 
at  the  same  time  corrosion  is  encouraged  and  is  progressing  more 
rapidily 

In  this  case  the  wasted  tube  was  not  scaled  on  its  interior, 
all  of  its  troubles  coming  from  the  outside.* 

The  testimony  taken  by  the  United  States  inspectors  of  steam- 
vessels  showed  that,  on  the  night  of  September  12,  1899,  the 
regular  engineer  closed  the  connections  between  the  gauge-glass 
and  the  boiler,  as  was  his  custom,  and  that  the  next  day,  being 
sick,  he  employed  another  engineer  to  take  his  place  for  the  day. 
Also  that  the  tug  left  her  berth  shortly  before  7  o'clock  in  the 
morning  in  charge  of  the  substitute  engineer,  and  that  the  acci- 
dent occurred  about  1  o'clock,  while  the  tug  was  towing  a  large 
loaded  scow  against  the  tide.  The  day  after  the  accident,  the 
gauge-glass  was  noticed  to  have  3  or  4  inches  of  water  and  the 
boiler  connections  were  closed. 

The  substitute  engineer  testified  that  the  boiler-gauge  showed 
a  steam  pressure  of  140  pounds  while  towing  the  scow,  and  every- 
thing appeared  to  be  all  right  until  he  noticed  that  the  pressure 

*  Cassier's  Mag.,  Vol.  16,  p.  620. 


CORROSION.  87 

was  falling.  He  then  shoveled  on  fresh  coal  and  turned  the  exhaust 
into  the  stack.  Receiving  a  signal  to  slow  down,  he  attempted 
to  work  the  injector,  but  could  not  get  water  into  the  boiler,  so 
was  forced  to  draw  the  fire.  While  drawing  the  fire  the  tubes 
dropped  down,  but  without  explosion  or  any  apparent  commotion. 
The  superintendent  of  the  dredging  company  testified  that  he 
visited  the  tugboat  an  hour  and  a  quarter  after  the  accident,  and 
found  the  fire-room  still  so  hot  that  he  could  scarcely  endure  the  heat. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  fiercest  heat  of  the  forge  is 
required  to  bring  wrought  iron  to  the  plastic  condition  necessary 
for  welding,  and  that  a  still  higher  temperature  is  required  for 
melting  it,  some  idea  is  gained  of  the  extreme  temperature  that 
must  have  prevailed. 

An  examination  of  the  boiler-tubes  showed  that  they  were  all 
clear,  and  that  the  circulation  was  not  impeded;  also  that  the 
tubes  were  coated  on  the  inside  and  outside  with  black  oxide  of 
iron,  which  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  iron  with  oxygen  gas 
when  the  former  is  red-hot.  The  combination  will  take  place  in 
the  presence  of  air  or  aqueous  vapor;  so  it  is  believed  by  the  manu- 
facturers of  the  Boyer  sectional  water-tube  boiler,  who  made  the 
boiler  in  question,  that  the  condition  of  the  tubes  shows  conclu- 
sively that,  by  reason  of  the  connections  between  the  boiler  and 
the  gauge-glass  being  closed,  the  engineer  did  not  know  where 
his  water-level  was,  and  that  it  had  been  materially  lowered  during 
the  hour  and  a  half  while  lying  still  before  towing  the  large 
scow;  also  that  the  towing  of  the  big  loaded  scow  against  the 
tide  was  hard  work  for  the  little  boat,  and  that  there  was  an  unusual 
consumption  of  water.  Thus  the  upper  evaporating-tubes  became 
empty  of  water,  and  when  the  exhaust  was  put  into  the  stack 
they  became  superheated  and  then  red-hot,  at  which  time  the 
steam  was  decomposed  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases.  These 
gases  being  released  by  a  split  in  some  of  the  pipes,  part  of  the 
oxygen  combined  with  the  iron,  forming  black  oxide  of  iron,  and 
leaving  the  hydrogen  to  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  passing 
through  the  furnace.  Thus  with  the  aid  of  the  fire  the  terrific 
heat  was  produced  that  melted  the  boiler-tubes.  This  action  was 
further  aided  by  the  air  that  passed  over  the  fire,  the  boiler-doors 
being  open  at  the  time,  and  the  engineer  engaged  in  hauling  the 
fire. 


88 


BOILER-WATERS. 


That  the  collapse  of  the  furnace  did  not  produce  a  disastrous 
explosion,  with  a  consequent  loss  of  life  and  property,  is  a  remark- 
able fact  and  one  that  testifies  to  the  safety  of  the  water -tube 
boiler  when  subjected  to  the  roughtest  usage.  The  damage  was 
entirely  confined  to  the  nest  of  tubes.  Fig.  14  shows  the  boiler 
before  the  outside  tubes  were  removed,  and  Fig.  15  shows  its  appear- 
ance after  four  rows  were  taken  off.* 


FIG.   14. — An  Exploded  Boiler.     (A  marine  accident.) 

A  Remarkable  Example  of  Boiler  Destruction,  where  flues  were 
clear  of  scale  and  the  accident  due  to  the  sudden  formation  of 
magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  was  that  of  the  water-tube  boiler  on  the 
tugboat  W.  H.  Beard,  28^  gross  tons,  used  in  towing  mud-scows, 
which  boiler  was  so  badly  burned  that  300  of  785  water-tubes 
were  practically  melted  together. 

Fig.  16  is  of  a  tube  corroded  by  pure  water  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  the  iron;  this  forms  a  blister,  underneath  which 
pitting  goes  on  to  considerable  depth.  A  heavy  fall  of  snow  melting 
quickly  on  a  large  watershed  is  sure  to  give  a  very  pure  water 
to  the  rivers  draining  the  same,  and  if  feed -water  is  pumped  from 
the  river  containing  frequently  less  than  one  part  of  solid  matter 
to  100,000,  and  used  in  a  boiler  which  has  no  scale  veneer,  bad 

*  Steam  Engineering. 


CORROSION. 


89 


corrosion  is  certain,  and  has  caused  endless  trouble,  the  corrosion 
being  principally  due  to  the  free  CC>2  contained  in  the  water. 

Lime  introduced  in  small  quantities  from  time  to  time  is  the 
proper  thing  to  maintain  this  thin  scale,  if  such  water  is  used  for 
any  length  of  time. 


FIG.   15. — Another  View  of  an  Exploded  Boiler. 


(From  "  The  Locomotive.") 

FIG.  16.— Tube  Pitted  by  Pure  Water. 

Salt  Water  as  Feed- water.— Power  *  quotes  a  marine  engineer 
who  says  that  salt  water  could  be  used  in  boilers  without  trouble. 
The  boilers  should  not  be  blown  down  until  the  water  in  the  boilers 
has  the  saline  part  increased  four  times;  the  water  should  then 

*  Nov.  1903. 


90  BOILER-WATERS. 

be  all  let  out,  and  100  pounds  of  soda  put  in  at  the  top  of  the 
boilers.  It  should  also  be  fed  during  the  ran. 

In  the  Philippines,  where  the  water  is  the  densest  in  the  world, 
he  had  no  trouble  with  the  boilers.  While  he  does  not  advise 
blowing  down  such  boilers  daily,  he  thinks  where  they  can  be  cooled 
down  and  the  water  changed  once  in  two  weeks  the  water  can 
be  used. 

Analysis  of  waters,  if  studied  carefully,  may  often  reveal  corro- 
sive effect  from  the  action  of  heat  on  the  water  when  in  the  steam- 
boiler.  The  following  tables  *  give  the  reactions  by  which  hydro- 
chloric, sulphuric,  and  nitric  acids  may  be  formed  in  boilers: 

a.  FORMATION  OF  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

Chloride  of  magnesium  and  steam .  .  .     MgCl2  +  H2O  =  MgO  +  2HC1. 
Sulphate  of  magnesium  and  alkaline 

chlorides MgSO4  +  H2O  +  2NaCl  =  Na.>SO4  +  MgO 

+  2HC1. 

Silica  and  alkaline  chlorides. ..." SiO2  +  2'NaCl  +  H2O  -  Na2SiO3  +  2HC1. 

Ferric  chloride -Fe2Cl0  +  3H2O  =  Fe2O3  +  6HCl. 

Ferrous  chloride. * 3FeCl2  +  4H2O=Fe3O4+H? 

Carbonate  of  magnesium  and  chlorides    MgCO3  +  2  NaCl  +  H2O  =  Na2CO3 

+  MgO  +  2HCl. 
Chloride  of  ammonium NH4C1  =  NH3  +  HC1. 


b.  FORMATION  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID. 

Normal  ferric  sulphate  .............  2Fe2(SO4)3  =  (Fe2O3)2SO2  +  5 

Ferrous  sulphate  ..................  3FeSO4  +  4H2O  =  Fe3O4 

Sulphurous  acid,  sulphite  ...........  SO2  +  H2O  +  O  =  H2SO4. 

Sulphurous  acid  and  ferric  sulphate.  .  H2SO3  +  Fe?(SO4)3+  H2O  =2FeSO4 


Sulphurous  acid  and  ferric  chloride  .  .     SO2  +  Fe2Cl6  -f-  2H2O  =  2FeCl2  +  2  HC1 

•fH,|3Q4. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sulphides.  .  .      E^S  -f  4O  =  H2SO4. 
Sulphate  of  calcium  and  organic  mat- 

ters .........................     2CaS04  +  C  +  3H2O=Ca(OH)2  +  CO 

+  2H.,S04. 
Sulphate  of  aluminium  .............     A12(SO4)3  +  3H2O  =A12O3  +  3H2SO4. 

Sulphate  of  ammonium  ............      (NH4)2SO4  =  2NH3  +  H2SO4. 

Sulphate  of  copper  ...............     CuSO4  +  Fe  =  FeSO4  +  Cu. 

*  De  la  Coux,  p.  101. 


CORROSION.  91 

c:  FORMATION  OF  NITRIC  ACID. 

Normal  ferric  nitrate Fe2(NO3)6  =  Ferric  nitrate  +  HNO3. 

Alkaline  nitrate  and  acid  sulphate  or 

sulphuric  acid NaNO3  +  NaHSO4  =  Na2SO4  +  HNO3. 

Nitrate  of  ammonium NH3NO3  =  NH3  +  HNO3. 

Tannin  when  used  with  a  certain  water  as  a  solvent  for  scale 
gave  no  trouble,  but  when  the  regular  feed-water  was  left  to  itself, 
or  certain  patented  compounds  were  used, 
the  effect  was  something  like  the  scale  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  under  which  conditions  corrosion 
acted  rapidly,  in  fact  but  a  few  months 
sufficed  to  eat  through  the  plate. 

In   another    case    a    patch    lasted    only 

,  ,1        j_i  •  1-         j  (From  "The  Locomotive.") 

twelve  months,  the  corrosive  action  destroy- 
ing it  being  due  to  the  presence  of  ammonia  uFl?v,17'    • 

Result  of  Corrosion, 
in  some  form,  probably  sal-ammoniac,  which 

if  at  all  concentrated  forms  a  very  active  agent  in  the  destruction 
of  steel  plates.  \ 

Note. — For  a  very  complete  digest  of  boiler  corrosion,  mechanical  in 
character  rather  than  from  water,  see  Engineering  News,  Vol.  37,  p.  94,  and 
full  inset  plate. 

Tests  by  W.  F.  Worthington  to  discover  the  difference  in 
corrodibility  of  tubes  made  of  iron  and  Bessemer  or  open-hearth 
steel  resulted  as  follows : 

1.  Corrosion  was  quickly  present  in  all  samples  in  pure  water; 

2.  Though  a  jet  of  air  struck  the  center  of  the  inner  side  of  each 

sample,  in  many  cases  the  outer  side  was  much  corroded; 

3.  All  test-pieces  show  pitting  to  a  certain  extent,  which  agrees 

with  Rowan's  statement,  that  "  pitting  occurs  in  all  kinds 
of  corrosive  liquids  and  all  kinds  of  metals,  even  platinum/' 

4.  The  corrosion  attacked  the   seamless-drawn  tubes  ^  inch  in 

depth  and  then  shelled  off,  leaving  metal  bright. 

5.  Oxygen  attacked  30  per  cent  nickel-steel  with  avidity,  notwith- 

standing Vos'smaer  says  25  per  cent  nickel-steel  is  practi- 
cally incorrodible. 

The  above  writer  cannot  conclude  from  his  experience  which 
tubes  are  the  best.  He  says  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  at 
356°  F.  (146  pounds  pressure)  iron  or  ordinary  carbon  steel  begins 
to  decompose  water. 


92 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Nickel-steel  seems  to  be  the  only  available  material. 
Trautwine  says:    "It  is  said  that  the  softest  water  may  be 
kept  in  brass  vessels  without  any  deleterious  results. 


(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co.) 

FIG.  18.— Nos.  1  and  3,  Ruptured  Tubes;  No.  2,  Collapsed  Tube;  4,  Split 
Feed-pipe;  5,  Corroded  Tubes.  No.  6  was  taken  from  a  water-tube 
boiler  and  carried  100  pounds  of  steam  up  to  the  time  inspection  was 
made.  Accumulation  of  scale  inside  prevented  its  leaking. 

"Copper  and  bronze  are  very  little  affected  by  sea-water. 
"  Fresh  water  corrodes  wrought  iron  more  rapidly  than  it  does 
cast  iron ;  the  reverse  seems  to  be  true  with  sea-water. 


CORROSION.  93 

"  Corrosion  of  iron  or  steel  by  sea-water  increases  with  the  car- 
bon in  the  metal. 

"Iron  boilers  made  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  are  still  doing  good 
work/7 

Percy,  in  a  paper,  "  British  Assoc.  Rep.  2,"  1849,  pp.  39,  40, 
on  copper  containing  phosphorus  with  details  of  experiments  on 
the  corrosive  action  of  sea-water  on  some  varieties  of  copper, 
describes  an  alloy  containing  copper,  95.72  per  cent;  iron,  2.41 
per  cent;  phosphorus,  2.41  per  cent,  which  on  being  exposed 
to  sea-water  for  nine  months  suffered  no  loss  of  weight. 

Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes.*— The  experience  of  the 
Mutual  Boiler  Insurance  Company  with  a  large  number  of  small 
upright  boilers,  in  which  one  new  heavy  steel  tube  with  fusible 
plug  replaced  one  of  an  all-iron  set,  was  as  follows: 

At  the  end  of  a  few  years  the  steel  tubes  were  pitted  and  corroded, 
the  iron  tubes  being  as  good  as  ever.  A  horizontal  boiler  contain- 
ing both  iron  and  steel  tubes,  run  at  high  pressure,  gave  equally 
good  results  for  both  metals. 

The  steel  tubes  gave  poor  service  in  heating-boilers  run  at  low 
pressures  and  laid  off  a  part  of  the  year. 

A  serious  case  of  corrosion  of  a  feed-pipe  and  the  shell  of  a 
horizontal  tubular  boiler  between  the  water-line  and  above  the 
fire-line  was  caused  by  the  return  from  copper  vacuum-kettles 
of  the  condensed  steam  used  in  heating  them  and  to  which  a  little 
raw  water  was  to  be  added.  While  in  ordinary  corrosion  cases 
the  trouble  is  localized,  in  this  case  the  trouble  was  evenly  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  pipe.  The  particles  of  the  copper  coming 
over  from  the  kettles  was  the  probable  cause  of  the  corrosion. 

Mr.  Yarrow  gives  as  the  probable  causes  of  the  deterioration 
of  marine  boiler-tubes: 

"  1st.  The  action  of  acids  in  the  water  due  to  the  grease,  which 
in  spite  of  every  precaution  finds  its  way  into  the  boiler. 

"  2d.  The  tubes  become  overheated  and  oxidizing  on  the  out- 
side through  contact  with  hot  gases  when  passing  from  the  furnace 
to  the  uptake. 

"  3d.  The  action  of  the  steam,  which  if  superheated  decom- 
poses, causing  deterioration  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes. 

*  Eng.  News,  Vol.  50,  p  318. 


94 


BOILER-WATERS. 


"  The  last  two  conditions  occur  when  the  tubes  from  defective 
circulation,  shortness  of  water,  or  from  the  collection  of  scale  be- 
come overheated." 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  feed-water  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  each  of  the  above  cases. 

In  order  to  show  the  relative  deterioration  due  to  the  action 
of  acids  in  the  water  on  boiler- tubes,  Yarrow  tested  two  mild 
steel  tubes  and  two  25  per  cent  nickel  tubes  tor  corrosion.  After 
being  immersed  for  22J  days  in  a  bath  of  33  per  cent  hydro- 
chloric acid  the  results  were  as  per  table. 

Fig.  19  shows  how  the  carbon-steel  tubes  B  and  F  and  nickel- 
steel  tubes  A  and  E  looked  after  the  completion  of  the  tests. 
The  same  figure  shows  results  of  fire- tests  of  similar  tubes  and 
is  self-explanatory. 

CORROSION   TEST.*     EXPERIMENTS   TO   ASCERTAIN   THE    EFFECTS 
OF  ACID  ON  NICKEL-STEEL  AND  MILD  CARBON-STEEL  TUBES. 


Solution  Used     Two  Parts  of  Water  to  One  Part  Con- 

centrated Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Total  Loss  in 

J3 

533  Hours,  or 

Kind 

M 

1 

Weight  in  Grams  at  End  of  Each  Period  of 

£ 

22  Days 
5  Hours. 

of 
Steel. 

!>    . 

~F 

Immersion. 

§ 

11 

.So 

21 

64 

44 

92 

168 

72 

24 

24 

24 

13 
•g 

In 

InFer 

0 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

£ 

Gims. 

Cent. 

Nickel  .  . 

190 

190 

189 

189 

188 

186 

186 

185 

185 

185 

533 

5 

2.f3 

Carbon.  . 

186 

184 

173 

166 

140 

101 

98 

94 

91 

88 

533 

98 

52.  f  8 

Nickel  .  . 

188 

188 

187 

187 

186 

183 

182 

181 

181 

181 

533 

7 

3.72 

Carbon.  . 

188 

187 

173 

162 

137 

112 

95 

92 

90 

88 

533 

ICO 

53.19 

*  Colby,  Soc.  Nav.  Engrs.,  1903. 

For  corrosion  and  pitting  Mr.  J.  T.  Fennell  recommends 
from  experience  thoroughly  cleaning  the  shell  and  painting  with 
a  thin  wash  of  Portland  cement,  and  putting  3  pounds  of  sal  soda 
in  when  starting  the  boiler,  and  ^  pound  of  the  same  every  few 
days.  The  result  was  very  satisfactory. 

The  boats  on  the  Mississippi  River  have  "  pans  "  in  their 
boilers,  about  4  feet  long  by  12  inches  wide,  made  of  sheet  iron, 
with  a  small  I  bolt  in  each  end  12  inches  long  to  support  them. 
These  pans  must  be  put  in  through  the  manhole  above  the  flues 
and  passed  down  between  them  to  the  front  end,  and  being  2  inches 
deep,  are  made  secure  by  placing  them  tight  up  against  the 


CORROSION. 


95 


96  BOILER-WATERS. 

bottom  flues,  and  directly  over  the  fire,  the  back  end  being 
about  2J  inches  over  the  forward  mud-drum  leg. 

These  pans  catch  a  great  deal  of  the  loose  scale  that  is  brought 
up  by  circulation. 

The  end  of  the  pan  being  over  the  mud-drum  leg  assists  the 
scale  being  drawn  from  the  pan  directly  to  the  leg  when  blowing 
out,  which  is  done  about  five  times  every  twenty-four  hours. 

For  horizontal  tubular  boilers  Mr.  Fennell  makes  these  pans 
5  feet  long  by  2  inches  deep,  and  of  such  a  width  as  to  get  them 
through  the  manhole.  Their  bottoms  should  be  square  or  flat,  not 
arched.  Arched  bottoms  are  always  a  failure. 

Pans  in  horizontal  boilers  should  be  kept  at  least  18  inches 
away  from  the  front  head.  A  weight  made  from  a  ladleful  of 
lead,  cooled,  is  used  to  hold  the  pan  from  the  tendency  to  float. 

Pitting. — Pitting  is  a  most  dangerous  form  of  corrosion  and 
"  may  be  described  as  a  series  of  small  holes  often  running  into 
each  other,  in  lines  and  patches,  eaten  into  the  surface  of  the  iron 
to  a  depth  sometimes  reaching  one-fourth  of  an  inch."  The 
mysterious  ways  of  pitting  have  been  enigmas  to  engineers. 

Grooving  frequently  occurs  around  the  stay-bolts  of  the  water- 
legs  or  furnaces  of  locomotive  boilers,  radiating  also  from  the 
stay-bolts  as  centers.  The  side  sheets  bending  backward  and 
forward  under  varying  steam  pressure  start  incipient  cracks  or 
open  up  the  surfaces  to  admit  water.  The  repeated  and  inter- 
mittent strains  on  the  sheets  from  the  very  severe  conditions 
such  boilers  are  called  upon  to  meet  aid  very  materially  in  this 
work  of  corrosion. 

Idle  boilers  are  especially  liable  to  pitting  and  usually  severe 
sufferers,  unless  the  best  of  care  is  given  them. 

Fig.  20  is  an  example  from  an  idle  boiler  in  which  impure 
water  had  been  used,  though  similar  results  would  have  been 
obtained  if  pure  water  had  been  used ;  and  though  the  exterior  of 
the  plate  was  clear,  the  furrows  were  quite  deep  inside,  and  stay- 
bolts  were  corroded  entirely  off. 

Examples  of  pitting  are  shown  in  Figs.  21  and  22. 

These  examples  are  from  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler  48  inches 
in  diameter  and  in  use  for  six  years  at  a  nail-works. 

The  lap-joint  shown  was  directly  over  the  flue  through  which 
the  waste  furnace-gases  were  admitted  to  the  boiler-setting,  and 


CORROSION. 


97 


consequently  were  exposed  to  sudden   and  violent  variations  of 
temperature.      One  minute  steam  would  blow  off  at  90  pounds 


("From  "The  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.  20  — Corrosion  around  Stay-bolts. 


(From  "  The  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.  21.— A  Pitted  Plate— Outer  Lap. 


(From  "The  Locomotive."  Hartford  S  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.  22.— A  Pitted  Plate— Inner  Lap. 

gauge  pressure;  the  next  the  gauge  was  indicating  a  drop  to  40 
pounds. 

As  in  almost  every  other  case,  the  grooving  and  pitting  was 
most  severe  along  the  edge  of  the  lap. 


98  BOILER-WATERS. 

The  feed-water  was  very  pure — so  much  so  that  there  was  no 
scale;  had  it  been  less  pure,  it  would  probably  scale  the  shell 
sufficiently  to  prevent  the  pitting. 

The  experience  of  the  Hartford  Steam-boiler  Inspection  and 
Insurance  Company  is  that  some  very  troublesome  cases  of  this 
character  have  been  cured  by  curving  the  flue  toward  the  rear  end 
of  the  boiler  (that  is,  the  flue  from  the  blast-furnace),  so  that  the 
gases  will  not  impinge  directly  on  the  plates,  but  be  delivered 
horizontally  along  the  under  surface  of  the  boiler. 

Mud-drums  which  are  located  close  to  brick  walls  and  are 
frequently  supplied  with  cold  water  are  very  likely  to  "  sweat  "; 
this  moisture,  along  with  the  lime  of  the  setting,  starts  pitting; 
and  as  a  similar  action  goes  on  in  many  cases  inside  of  the  drum 
also,  it  is  but  a  short  time  when  the  pitting  has  perforated  the 
shell.  To  prevent  inside  pitting,  blow  down  the  drum  frequently ; 
to  stop  outside  troubles,  keep  the  masonry  away  from  the  boiler- 
metal. 

In  recording  the  explosion  of  twenty-two  two-cylinder  steam- 
boilers  at  Friedenshiitte,  Germany,  July  25,  1887,  Locomotive, 
1888,  says:  "  The  feed-water  was,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  coal 
districts,  bad  for  boiler  use.  It  made  a  bad  scale  which  became 
detached  and,  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  boilers,  formed  a  deposit 
which  caused  some  pitting  of  the  shell-plates. 

"  This  is  the  analysis  of  the  feed-water  used: 

Silicic  acid .0300  gram 

Iron  oxide 0160 

Lime 2624 

Manganese  oxide 0540 

Sulphuric  acid x.;. 3698 

Chlorine ~~. . 0139 

Organic  matter.    . 1200 

A  French  engineer,  M.  Olroy,*  in  Engineering,  gives  an  in- 
teresting account  of  an  investigation  by  him  into  the  cause  of 
pitting  in  boilers.  He  says:  Pitting  is  particularly  likely  to  occur 
if  a  water  very  free  from  lime  is  used  in  a  clean  boiler.  The  pits 
take  the  form  of  conical  or,  more  frequently,  spherical  depressions, 
which  are  filled  with  a  yellowish-brown  deposit,  consisting  mainly 
of  iron  oxide. 

*  Locomotive,  Nov.  1894. 


CORROSION.  99 

The  volume  of  the  powder  is  greater  than  that  of  the  metal 
oxidized,  so  that  a  blister  is  formed  above  the  pit,  which  has  a 
skin  as  thin  as  an  egg-shell.  This  skin  contains  usually  both 
iron  oxide  and  lime  salts,  and  differs  greatly  in  toughness. 

In  many  cases  it  is  so  friable  that  it  breaks  with  the  least 
shock,  falling  to  powder,  while  in  other  cases  the  blister  detaches 
itself  from  the  plate  as  a  whole.  An  analysis  of  the  powder  in 
the  pits  showed  it  to  consist  of  86.26  per  cent  of  peroxide  of  iron,  6.29 
per  cent  of  grease  and  other  organic  matter,  and  4.25  per  cent  of 
lime  salts,  the  remainder  being  water,  silica,  aluminum,  etc.  The 
skin  over  the  pits  was  found  to  contain  38  parts  of  calcium  car- 
bonate, 12.8  parts  of  calcium  sulphate,  and  32.2  parts  of  iron 
oxide,  with  about  8  parts  each  of  magnesium  carbonate  and  in- 
soluble matter. 

Feed-heaters  often  suffer  badly  from  pitting,  particularly  near 
the  cold-water  inlet,  and  in  boilers  the  parts  most  likely  to  be 
attacked  are  those  where  the  circulation  is  bad,  especially  if  such 
portions  are  also  near  the  feed-inlet. 

In  locomotives  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  is  most  frequently 
attacked,  and  the  largest  ring. 

The  steam-spaces  are  generally  free  from  pitting,  unless  the 
boiler  is  frequently  kept  standing  with  water  in  it.  As  the  water 
evaporates,  pitting  is  then  likely  to  occur  along  the  region  of  the 
water-line,  a  part  which,  in  a  working  boiler,  is  generally  free  from 
attack.  This  is  especially  the  case  if  longitudinal  joints  of  the 
boiler  are  liable  to  be  exposed  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water, 
and  to  form  a  ledge  on  which  moisture  can  rest. 

When  a  boiler  forms  one  of  a  battery,  and  is  kept  standing  for 
a  long  interval,  the  top  of  the  boiler  is  liable  to  pit.  Steam  finds  its 
way  into  it,  and  condenses  on  the  roof,  causing  bad  pitting  there. 

Perfectly  pure  water  containing  no  air  does  no  harm,  and 
steam  alone  will  not  cause  pitting,  unless  it  gets  a  supply  of  air. 
The  Loch  Katrine  water  of  Glasgow,  which  causes  pitting  in 
clean  boilers,  contains  much  gas. 

MM.  Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier-Dolfas  inclosed  a  polished 
iron  bar  in  a  natural  water  containing  much  oxygen  and  no  lime 
salts.  The  bar  gradually  rusted,  but  the  corrosion  ceased  when 
the  oxygen  was  used  up.  The  bar  was  then  removed,  repolished, 
and  put  back,  after  which  it  remained  perfectly  bright. 


1 00  BOI LER- WATER  S. 

Repeating  the  experiment  with  water  containing  lime,  the 
rusting  was  much  less  complete,  the  lime  salts  forming  a  protective 
layer  on  the  iron,  but  corrosion  recommenced  on  polishing  the  layer 
off. 

In  distilled  water  the  bar  remained  quite  bright.  The  corro- 
sion is  much  more  rapid  if  the  water  contains  carbonic-acid  gas 
as  well  as  oxygen.  In  this  case  a  voltaic  action  takes  place. 
The  rust  first  formed  is  electropositive  to  the  iron,  which  then 
dissolves  away,  decomposing  the  water.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
in  cases  of  pitting  it  is  essential  that  all  traces  of  the  iron  peroxide 
should  be  cleaned  from  the  metal,  or  the  rusting  will  be  continued. 

Parker,  in  the  American  Machinist,  July  1892,  says  that  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  rust  and  scale  in  boiler-shells  and  mud-drums 
has  been  prevented  by  a  thorough  cleaning  and  then  applying 
graphited  oil  with  a  swab-brush  or  anything  handy  to  the  joints 
and  parts  where  the  water  enters  the  drum.  The  operation  is 
repeated  every  four  or  six  weeks  with  the  most  gratifying  re- 
sults. 

In  a  boiler  of  the  porcupine  type  pitting  was  arrested  by  scraping 
and  painting  with  graphite  mixed  with  mineral  oil. 

A  pair  of  new  cylindrical  boilers,  42  inches  in  diameter  by 
28  feet  long,  were  tested  for  a  period  of  six  months.  Feed-water 
was  mine- water.  They  replaced .  others  rotten  from  corrosion,  and 
during  this  test  the  occasional  application  of  plumbago  and  mineral 
cylinder-oil  kept  back  corrosion.  Mr.  Deeley  has  found  pitting  to 
cease  in  many  instances  when  the  water  was  kept  slightly  alkaline. 

The  late  Dr.  R.  H.  Thurston,  in  a  communication  to  Engineer- 
ing News,  1898,  gave,  as  the  result  of  his  researches  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  these  notes,  which  are  also  to  be  found  in  his 
"  Materials  of  Engineering,"  Vol.  2: 

1.  Corrosion  can  ordinarily  only  occur  in  the  presence,  simul- 
taneously, of  oxygen,  moisture,  and  carbon  dioxide  (Calvert). 

2.  The  gases  of  the  locomotive  accelerate  corrosion  by  their 
peculiar  acid  quality,  arising  from  their  contents  of  sulphur  oxides; 
iron  and  steel  absorbing  acids  somewhat  greedily. 

3.  Cast  iron,  in  dilute  solutions  of  acids,  is  rapidly  acted  upon, 
especially  in  warm  water — in  the  flow  of  water  of  condensation 
from  engine-condensers,  for  example,  losing  the  metal,  and  often 
leaving  the  carbon  and  other  matters ;  the  piece  retaining  its  form 


CORROSION. 


101 


and  general  appearance  unchanged,  but  with  enormously  reduced 
density.  The  metal  is  said  by  the  uninformed  to  have  been 
"  changed  to  plumbago  "  (Calvert). 

4.  Corrosion   is   rapidly   effected   with   cast   metal   irregularly 
and  quickly  cooled  in  the  mould,  less  rapidly  where  slowly  and 
regularly  cooled  (Mallet). 

5.  The  rate  of  corrosion  is  ordinarily  constant  over  long  periods 
of  time;  but  the  removal  of  dust  retards  oxidation,  as  it  destroys 
the  voltaic  couple  composed  of  metal  and  of  oxide. 

6.  Hard   iron,   rich   in   combined   carbon,  rusts   slowly.     The 
presence  of  graphite  or  of  a  different  quality  of  iron  in  metallic 
contact  with  it  increases  the  rate  of  oxidation, — presumably  by 
forming  local  voltaic  samples.     Hard  steel  rusts  less  rapidly  than 
soft. 

7.  Foul  sea-water,  as  the  bilge-water  of  a  ship,  corrodes  iron 
and  steel  rapidly. 

8.  The  rate  of  corrosion  is  too  variable  to  be  stated  in  exact 
terms.     The  hulls  of  iron  ships  have  been  found  to  average  a  rate 
of  not  far  from  ^  inch  in  twenty-five  years  when  carefully  painted. 
Iron  roofs  exposed  to  smoke  and  gases  of  locomotives  are  some- 
times ruined  in  three  or  four  years. 

9.  The  observations  of  Thwaite  are  as  follows:    The  time  of 
endurance  in  years  may  be  expected  to  average  about 

T=WXCL; 

where  W  is  the  weight  of  metal  in  pounds  per  foot  length  of  the 
member;  L  is  its  length  of  perimeter  inside  and  out  if  it  is  hollow; 
and  C  is  a  constant  which  has  the  following  values  and  the  mag. 
nitude  of  which  measures  the  relative  loss  by  corrosion: 


Water. 

Impure 
Air. 

Sea. 

River. 

Foul. 

Clear. 

Foul. 

Clear  or 
in  Air. 

Cast  iron 

0.0656 
.1956 
.1944 
.23 
.09 

0.0636 
.1255 
.0970 
.0880 
.0359 

0.0381 
.1440 
.1133 
.0728 
.0371 

0.0113 
.0123 
.0125 
0109 
.0048 

0.0476 
.1254 
.1252 
.0854 
.0199 

Wrought  iron 

Steel 

Cast  iron,  no  skin  
Galvanized 

102  BOILER-WATERS. 

Average  for  sea-water,  cast  iron,  in  contact  with  brass,  copper, 
or  gun-bronzes,  0.19  to  0.35;  wrought  iron,  in  contact  with  the 
same,  0.3  to  0.45.  This  is  for  unpainted  metal,  of  course. 

For  painted  iron  or  steel  it  is  safe  to  multiply  the  endurance, 
as  above,  by  two  or  more. 

The  above  are  general  statements,  and  there  is  no  clue  to 
analysis  or  quality  of  the  metals  themselves,  and  the  above  figures 
should  be  considered  in  this  light. 

Mr.  Thos.  Andrews,  F.R.S.,  writing  on  the  effect  of  stress  on 
corrosion  of  metals,*  gives  a  table  of  the  electromotive  force 
obtained  between  strained  and  unstrained  portions  of  the  same 
metal,  which  varied  from  0.002  to  0.019  volt.  In  all  these  tests 
the  strained  metal  was  the  electropositive. 

Corrosion  is  always  accompanied  by  electrical  energy  of  greater 
or  less  intensity  or  electromotive  force,  according  to  the  sub- 
stance consumed. 

Mr.  Carl  Hambuchen,  B.Sc.,f  says  concerning  corrosion:  "In 
many  if  not  all  cases  the  character  and  rapidity  of  ordinary 
corrosion  of  iron  and  steel  depend  upon  their  physical  and  chemical 
properties,  and  the  galvanic  action  due  to  differences  of  potential 
between  different  parts  of  the  metal." 

In  addition  to  boiler  materials  being  under  strain,  they  are 
subject  to  very  high  and  variable  temperatures,  which  also  con- 
tribute to  assist  the  work  of  corrosion. 

*  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  1893-94.  t  Bui.  Univ.  of  Wis.,  Vol.  2,  No.  8. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
FEED-WATER  PIPES.— BLOW-OFF  PIPES —TUBES. 

WE  all  know  that  the  feed-water  inlet  in  a  steam-boiler  is 
one  of  the  parts  of  a  setting  that  are  subject  to  hard  usage,  and  in 
the  furnace  this  piping  is  subject  to  all  the  ills  of  the  boiler  itself. 
It  frequently  happens  that  in  neglected  plants  the  pipe  is  almost 
closed  with  mud  and  scale. 

Fig.  22a  shows  a  ruptured  blow-off  pipe,  the  rupture  caused 
by  a  deposit  of  scale  and  sediment  lodging  in  the  pipe,  and  indicated 


(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co  ) 

tic.  22a.— Ruptured  Blow-off  Pipe. 

by  Fig.  23.  When  the  pipe  broke,  the  steam  dug  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  and  also  opened  the  furnace-doors  and  cleaned  the  wood 
fire  off  the  grates.  The  steam-gauge  indicated  100  pounds  pres- 
sure. 

After  inspecting  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler  in  South  Carolina, 
C.  C.  Davis,  of  the  Fidelity  and  Casualty  Company,  reported  a 
little  information  worthy  of  preservation. 

"  There  is  a  small  bag  on  the  bottom  of  the  shell  near  the  rear 
head,  due  to  the  blow-off  pipes  being  tapped  into  the  rear  head 
about  3  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  shell.  The  metal  in  the  bag 

103 


104 


BOILER-WATERS. 


is  in  good  condition  and  is  not  down  over  &  of  an  inch,  and  we 
would  recommend  that  the  blow-off  pipe  be  tapped  into  this  bag. 
There  is  also  a  slight  pitting,  mostly  on  the  tube  surface,  and 
we  would  recommend  the  use  of  carbonate  of  soda  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  pitting  from  extending.  The  soda  should  be 
introduced  continuously  through  the  feed-water,  in  a  quantity  that 
will  best  be  determined  by  experiment. 

"  Care  should  be  taken  to  open  the  boiler  shortly  after  the  soda 
has  been  introduced,  and  to  remove  whatever  scale  has  accumu- 
lated on  the  sheets,  as  otherwise  serious  trouble  is  liable  to  be  caused 


(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co.) 

FIG.  23  —Side  Elevation  of  Blow-off  Connection. 

through  the  overheating  of  the  metal.  Care  should  also  be  taken 
to  open  the  surface  and  bottom  blow-off  pipes  at  frequent  intervals, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  density  of  the  solution  from  becoming  too 
great,  as  otherwise  priming  is  liable  to  ensue." 

Condenser-tubes. — W.  A.  Stewart,  in  a  paper  before  the  Institute 
of  Naval  Engineers,  1903,  said  that  serious  corrosion  on  condenser- 
tubes  on  board  ship  is  often  laid  to  the  charge  of  faulty  wiring. 

One  Channel  steamer  that  had  such  trouble  was  wired  on  the 
single-wire  system,  and  though  having  seen  but  one  year  of  service, 
some  of  the  condenser-tubes  needed  renewal. 

At   the  same   time   a   twenty-year-old   paddle-wheel   steamer 


FEED-WATER  PIPES.— BLOW-OFF  PIPES.— TUBES.         105 

showed  the  same  trouble;  it  was  not  wired  at  all  for  electricity, 
but  both  had  been  moored  together  near  the  outlet  of  a  sewer 
from  a  galvanizing  works,  where  many  acids  were  discharged, 
and  it  was  this  foul  acid  water  that  caused  the  trouble. 

The  elements  used  in  alloys  may  be  electrochemically  arranged, 
so  that  each  element  will  be  positive  to  any  above  it  and  negative 
to  any  below  it.  The  oxides  of  elements  are  electropositive  to 
their  own  elements. 

The  nearer  together  the  metals  are  in  the  list  the  less  will  be 
the  difference  of  potential: 

Copper, 

Tin, 

Lead, 

Nickel, 

Zinc. 

A  flow  of  electricity  is  always  set  up  where  there  is  a  difference 
of  potential.  Electrolysis  or  electrochemical  action  occurs  at  the 
expense  or  using  up  of  the  electropositive  element  or  oxide,  and 
can  be  accelerated,  or  vice  versa,  by  the  contact  liquid. 

As  to  oxidation,  pure  copper  cannot  be  cast  without  the  oxi- 
dation of  the  metal,  which  shows  itself  after  the  metal  is  drawn 
to  a  tube  or  other  form,  and  the  places  of  oxidation  are  the  begin- 
ning of  pitting  and  finally  holes  in  the  tube. 

Brass  tubes  always  contain  some  zinc,  which  is  positive  to  the 
copper  and  corrodes  very  easily;  and  the  zinc  being  thus  entirely 
liberated,  the  strength  of  the  tube  is  also  reduced  materially. 

Nickel  is  very  inert,  that  is,  slow  to  act  or  be  acted  upon. 

In  the  French  battleship  Brennus  copper  tubes  corroded  in  a 
very  short  time  and  much  more  rapidly  than  the  brass  tubes 
in  use. 

The  deterioration  from  corrosion  of  the  parts  of  compound 
boilers,  such  as  mud-drums,  heaters,  water-bottoms,  water-legs, 
and  the  like,  which  are  located  below  the  active  generating  surfaces 
of  a  boiler  is  a  notable  experience  in  boiler  practice. 

This  corrosion  is  most  frequently  caused  by  the  condensation 
of  acid  vapors  from  the  furnace-gases  upon  the  cooler  surfaces, 
or  by  the  salts  of  acids  deposited  with  soot  and  ashes ;  the  corrosion 
of  steel  chimneys  where  the  ashes  lodge  on  the  joints  of  the  sheets 


106  BOILER-WATERS. 

and  is  washed  through  the  joint  by  moisture  is  another  example 
of  corrosion  from  this  cause  and  which  occurs  in  steam-plants. 

It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  boiler  is  in  steady  or  in- 
termittent use  or  not,  nor  how  good  the  metal  is ;  in  fact,  the  com- 
mon impurities  of  iron  are  least  soluble  in  acids  and  resist  for  a 
long  period  any  tendency  to  corrosion. 

Brass  pipe  should  never  be  used  for  internal  feed-pipes  or  for 
blow-off  connections;  it  may,  however,  be  used  for  external  feed- 
pipes which  are  not  exposed  to  very  high  temperatures,  and  where 


FIG.  24.— Effect  of  Electrolysis  upon  Brass  Tubes 

the  feed-water  is  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  liable  to  produce 
pitting. 

Heavy  iron  pipe  is  the  best  for  internal  use,  that  is,  inside  of 
the  boiler,  and  is  likewise  much  cheaper  than  copper  or  brass  pipe. 
An  inch  and  a  quarter  inside  diameter  |  inch  thick  iron  pipe  used 
as  a  feed-pipe  entered  a  boiler  from  the  top  through  a  bushing, 
and  the  brass  pipe  (Fig.  25)  was  screwed  into  this  bushing  inside 
the  boiler  in  a  vertical  position,  with  its  lower  end  (elbow  end) 
just  below  the  water-line  and  just  above  the  top  row  of  tubes.  A 
horizontal  iron  pipe  from  the  elbow  took  the  feed-water  toward 
the  rear  end  of  the  boiler.  While  the  brass  pipe  was  much  cor- 
roded the  iron  pipe  was  not  affected. 

"  The  boiler  in  question  was  situated  in  a  shoe-shop  in  Massa- 
chusetts, in  a  part  of  the  State  where  the  water  is  more  or  less 


FEED-WATER  PIPES.— BLOW-OFF  PIPES.— TUBES.         107 

hard,  soda-ash  and  kerosene  being  used  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  scale.  The  boiler  was  three  years  old,  and  the  brass  pipe 
had  been  in  use  for  the  same  length  of  time. 

"The  feed-water  was  drawn  from  the  town  supply  and  was 
heated  in  a  coil  heater  with  exhaust-steam.  It  was  metered,  and, 
naturally  enough,  an  effort  was  made  to  economize  in  the  con- 
sumption of  it,  so  far  as  possible.  The  drips  from  the  shop  were 
all  returned  to  the  feed-tank,  together  with  the  condensed  water 
from  the  heater.  As  a  result  a  considerable  quantity  of  greasy 
matter  was  introduced  into  the  boiler  along  with  the  feed,  and 
some  trouble  was  experienced  through  the  starting  of  the  girth 
joint  over  the  fire.  The  drip  from  the  heater  was  then  disconnected 


(From  "  The  Locomotive,"  Hartford  S.  B.  I.  &  I.  Co.) 

FIG.  25. — Corroded  Brass  Pipe  from  the  Interior  of  a  Boiler. 

from  the  feed-tank  and  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  This  prevented 
the  introduction  of  grease,  so  that  the  boiler  became  much  cleaner 
and  no  further  trouble  was  had  with  the  joints.  The  change  was 
made. last  January,  and  the  boiler  was  not  inspected  internally 
at  that  time,  so  far  as  we  are  aware. 

"  The  large  hole  in  the  corroded  brass  pipe  came  just  at  the  usual 
water-line,  and  the  natural  inference  would  be  that  the  destruction 
was  due  to  the  corrosive  action  of  the  floating  grease,  which  would 
be  gradually  decomposed  by  the  heat  with  a  corresponding  libera- 
tion of  the  fatty  acids  it  contained.  There  are  several  objections 
to  this  hypothesis,  however.  In  the  first  place,  the  pipe  was  in 
good  condition  when  the  last  internal  inspection  was  made,  a  year 
ago,  although  it  had  been  exposed  to  the  grease  two  years.  Twenty- 
four  months  of  exposure  had  not  noticeably  affected  it,  and  yet 
the  seven  months  that  elapsed  between  the  last  inspection  and  the 
disconnection  of  the  heater  had  entirely  destroyed  it  (assuming 
the  grease  theory  to  be  correct).  Again,  there  is  another  boiler 
in  the  same  room  eight  years  old  which  also  has  a  brass  pir>e 


108  BOILER-WATERS. 

in  it  arranged  in  the  same  way.  There  is  no  observable  difference 
in  the  conditions  under  which  the  two  boilers  are  run,  nor  in  the 
manner  of  feeding  them,  and  yet  the  brass  pipe  in  the  second 
boiler,  which  is  five  years  older,  is  far  less  affected,  although  it 
does  show  signs  of  the  same  action.  The  shell-plates  along  the 
water-line  are  perfectly  sound  in  both  boilers,  with  no  indications 
of  pitting  or  corrosion. 

"It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  action  was  of  electrical 
origin,  and  that  it  was  due  either  to  the  dynamo  in  the  next  room, 
used  for  lighting  the  shop,  or  to  the  simpler  fact  that  the  feed- 
pipe was  constructed  of  two  metals,  brass  and  iron,  which  would 
naturally  produce  a  galvanic  couple  when  submerged  in  the  water 
of  the  boiler.*  In  support  of  the  first  view,  it  is  alleged  that 
the  corrosion  dates  practically  from  the  time  the  electric  lights 
are  introduced;  and  yet  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  an  electric 
action  from  such  a  cause  could  take  place  within  the  closed  con- 
ductor formed  by  the  boiler-shell.  If  the  corrosion  were  of  elec- 
trical origin,  it  seems  more  likely  that  the  source  of  the  electricity 
was  within  the  boiler;  but  in  that  case  we  fail  to  understand 
why  it  was  not  observed  before. 

"  As  may  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said,  we  are  not  pre- 
pared to  offer  any  conclusive  theory  with  regard  to  this  particular 
case  of  corrosion.  The  brass  pipe  here  illustrated  has  been  re- 
placed by  an  iron  one,  while  the  corresponding  brass  pipe  in  the 
neighboring  boiler  has  not  been  disturbed.  The  conditions  under 
which  the  two  boilers  are  run  have  not  been  otherwise  changed, 
and  it  will  doubtless  be  instructive  to  observe  the  subsequent 
course  of  events. 

*  Faraday  made  elaborate  investigations  of  the  electrical  condition  of  the 
interior  of  a  conductor  which  was  charged  on  the  outside  with  electricity.  In 
the  course  of  one  of  his  experiments  he 'built  a  large  hollow  cube,  12  feet 
square,  and  covered  it  all  over  on  the  outside  with  copper  wire  and  tin-foil. 
He  took  delicate  electroscopes  into  the  cube,  but  could  not  detect  any  elec- 
tricity at  all,  even  when  the  outside  was  strongly  charged.  "I  went  into 
the  cube  and  lived  in  it,"  he  says,  "and  using  lighted  candles,  electrometers, 
and  all  other  tests  of  electrical  states,  I  could  not  find  the  least  influence  upon 
them  or  indication  of  anything  particular  given  by  them,  though  all  the 
time  the  outside  of  the  cube  was  powerfully  charged,  and  large  sparks  and 
brushes  were  darting  off  from  every  part  of  its  outer  surface."  (Experimental 
Researches  in  Electricity,  by  Michael  Faraday,  Vol.  I,  p.  366.) 


FEED-WATER  PIPES— BLOW-OFF   PIPES.— TUBES.         109 

"  In  conclusion,  we  may  say,  that  in  our  judgment,  brass  should 
never  be  used  either  for  internal  feed-pipes  or  for  blow-offs.  It- 
does  very  well  for  external  feed-pipes,  which  are  not  exposed  to 
heat,  but  in  other  places  it  cannot  be  recommended.  Iron  is 
much  better." 

Corrosion. — Mr.  Victor  Beutner,*  in  a  paper  on  "  The  Manu- 
facture of  Welded  Pipe,"  says:  "  Generally  speaking,  steel  presents 
less  difficulties  in  manufacturing  than  wrought  iron,  being  much 
1  cleaner '  to  handle  and  furnishing  a  more  uniform  and  reliable 
product. 

"  The  only  exception  is  the  well-known  power  of  resistance 
of  pure  wrought  iron  to  the  influence  of  rain  or  other  atmospheric 
moisture,  and  to  the  corrosion  by  the  soil,  if  exposed  to  either 
without  protection.  In  such  case  the  wrought-iron  pipe  will  out- 
last the  steel  pipe  nearly  three  times." 

This  is  the  testimony  of  an  engineer  of  long  experience  in  pipe 
manufacture. 

Again,  Mr.  Alex.  B.  Moncrieff,  South  Australia,  with  experience 
in  the  use  of  the  very  best  wrought-iron  casing  in  deep-well  bores  in 
the  above  country,  says  that  in  wells  from  which  the  water  flows  at 
considerable  velocity,  and  at  temperatures  as  high  as  204°,  piping 
sometimes  rusts  through.  The  water  is  mineralized,  probably  with 
sodium  chloride  (common  salt),  by  which  either  steel  or  iron 
would  be  corroded. 

Durability  of  Wrought-iron  Pipe. — A  section  of  water-pipe 
30  feet  long  taken  up  in  1899  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  was  25  years, 
old.  It  was  a  thin  riveted  wrought-iron  pipe  J  of  an  inch  thick, 
laid  in  1874  by  Thos.  Leighton  as  a  portion  of  a  24-in. -diameter 
supply-pipe  from  Carrol  to  Fitzhugh  Race  to  the  Holly  Pumping 
Station.  The  pipe  was  practically  as  good  as  when  it  was  laid 
25  years  ago,  and  with  probably  an  equally  long  life  ahead  of  it. 
The  pipe  was  made  originally  for  another  use. 

From  a  discussion  in  Engineering  News  f  on  quality  and  dura- 
bility of  steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  it  is  brought  out  that  steel 
pipe  corrodes  much  quicker  than  wrought  iron;  that  steel  tubes, 
have  been  quite  universally  discarded  for  locomotive  boilers. 

Old-fashioned  corrugated  iron  lasted  twenty  years  on  buildings 

*  Eng.  News,  Vol.  51,  p.  425.  f  Vol.  50,  pp.  286,  296,  and  502. 


110  BOILER- WATERS. 

where  the  new,  so  called  (probably  steel),  lasted  three  years.  A 
general  manager  of  one  of  the  large  steel-mills  freely  admitted  that 
steel  was  more  easily  corroded  than  wrought  iron. 

After  telling  how  the  two  products  are  manufactured,  Mr.  Jas. 
P.  Roe,  M.E.  and  superintendent  of  iron-works  of  the  Glasgow 
Iron  Company,  Pottstown,  Pa.,  says:  "It  is  probable  that  the 
high  phosphorus  that  iron  will  safely  carry,  compared  to  steel, 
tends  to  help  in  its  resistance  to  oxidation,  as  steel  high  in  metal- 
loids appears  to  resist  oxidation  better  than  steel  low  in  metalloids. 
Steel  finishes  smooth,  while  iron  finishes  rough,  and  is  better 
prepared  to  receive  and  hold  a  protective  coating,  whatever  it 
may  be." 

Another  thinks  steel  made  by  the  basic  process  changes  its 
character  and  improves  with  age;  in  other  words,  it  will  not  cor- 
rode after  reaching  a  certain  age. 

A  steel  company  having  corrugated  covering  put  on  a  building 
would  not  allow  steel,  but  insisted  on  wrought  iron. 

Mr.  Chas.  H.  Manning,  superintendent  of  the  Amoskeag  Com- 
pany, Manchester,  N.  H.,  says  in  part:  "There  is  no  denying  the 
fact  that  steel  boiler-tubes  will  pit  much  sooner  than  iron  tubes, 
or,  I  should  say,  will  pit  where  iron  tubes  will  not,  and  I  never  use 
steel  tubes. 

"I  have  recently  retubed  a  boiler,  built  in  1898,  with  as  good 
charcoal-iron  tubes  as  I  ever  used,  and  yet  they  were  ruined  by 
pitting.  « 

"This  boiler  had  been  fed  on  city  water  where  there  was  an 
alum  coagulant  used  in  the  filter.  However,  tubes  of  the  same 
make  and  the  same  lot  used  in  other  boilers  built  at  the  same 
time  are  perfectly  good." 

Mr.  Manning  prefers  steel  to  iron  except  in  boiler-tubes  aud 
small  piping,  his  objection  being  that  steel  pipe  is  harder  to  make 
up  well  and  is  ruinous  to  dies  for  large  s:'zes  of  pipe. 

In  two  plants  known  to  the  author,  in  the  same  city,  one  uses 
river-water  and  has  no  trouble  with  corrosion,  while  the  other 
uses  city  water  in  which  alum  coagulant  was  used  in  the  filtration 
process,  and  the  feed-piping  of  this  plant  has  been  entirely  corroded 
through  in  less  than  five  years. 

A  3-inch  extra-strong  wrought-iron  pipe,  replacing  a  pipe 
lasting  fifteen  years,  using  same  water-supply  failed  by  corrosion. 


FEED- WATER   PIPES.— BLOW-OFF  PIPES.— TUBES. 


Ill 


Investigation  as  to  its   cause  showed   the  water  to  be  contami- 
nated with  sewage.     The  corrosion  along  the  top  of  the  pipe  and 


FIG.  25a.— Conoded  Wrought-iron  Pipe. 

the  decomposition  of  the  sewage  to  H2S  and  C02  mixed  with 
air  in  a  trapped  portion  of  the  line  did  the  work  quickly. 


112  BOILER-WATERS. 

The  corrosion  was  not  uniform,  as  has  been  thought  by  some 
to  be  the  case  with  wrought  iron. 

Mr.  Frank  N.  Speller,  in  closing  the  article  in  the  Engineering 
Record,  Vol.  51,  p.  654,  from  which  the  above  is  taken,  says:  "  It 
would  therefore  seem  that  environment  is  the  determining  factor 
in  corrosion,  compared  with  which  any  difference  there  may  be 
between  the  relative  tendencies  of  wrought  iron  and  soft  steel 
to  rust  is  usually  trivial." 

Sweet's  Mud-catcher.  —  While  feed-water  heaters  catch  some 
of  the  impurities  before  the  water  reaches  the  boiler  at  a  temper- 
ture  below  212°  F.  in  closed  heaters,  in  John  E.  Sweet's  mud- 
catcher  the  work  is  done  much  better,  partly  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  located  inside  the  boiler  and  is  heated  to  a  very  high  tem- 
perature. 

The  feed-water  enters  the  boiler  at  the  top,  is  passed  through 
a  spray-plate,  and  enters  the  tank  A,  passes  down  through  the 
tube  B,  entering  the  mud-catcher  C,  out  of  which  it  cannot  escape 
except  through  a  narrow  slit  in  its  upper  side. 

Notwithstanding  the  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  water  is  thought  to 
be  the  best  in  the  State,  the  mud-catcher  soon  fills  up,  making  it 
both  advisable  and  necessary  to  clean  it  often  rather  than  have 
it  overflow  and  the  "stuff"  accumulate  on  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler. 

The  blow-off  connection  is  placed  in  the  front  of  the  boiler, 
and,  as  may  readily  be  seen  from  the  figure,  is  entirely  protected 
by  brickwork. 

In  a  letter  to  the  author  from  John  E.  Sweet,  he  says:  "This 
Yankee  nation,  of  which  we  boast  so  much,  is  the  stupidest  in 
some  things  of  any  in  the  world.  The  papers  are  all  the  time 
pointing  out  where  other  nations  are  copying  our  things  right 
and  left,  where  we  will  neither  copy  the  best  of  what  other  nations 
do,  and  we  won't  copy  'ourselves. 

"  For  ten  or  a  dozen  years  I  have  been  showing  our  mud-catcher 
(one  of  the  most  simple  and  sensible  things  I  ever  devised)  to 
everybody,  but  nobody  adopts  it." 

A  somewhat  similar  device  has  been  in  use  on  locomotives  of 
the  New  York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  Railroad,  and  has  been 
illustrated  in  the  Report  of  the  Master  Mechanics'  Association, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  27. 


FEED-WATER  PIPES.— BLOW-OFF  PIPES.— TUBES. 


113 


GB 


114 


BOILER-WATERS. 


In  this  case,  however,  the  pipe  along  the  boiler  bottom  is 
much  smaller,  and  serves  as  a  mud  "  scourer,"  not  as  a  "  catcher." 


This  device  insures  the  sediment  being  blown  out  from  the 
entire  lengths  of  places  of  settling,  instead  of  only  at  blow-off 
cock  outlet,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  the  ordinary  boiler-setting. 


FEED-WATER   PIPES.— BLOW-OFF   PIPES.— TUBES.         115 

Cooling  of  Boilers.— M.  E.  Wells  says:  "A  boiler  with  200 
pounds  of  steam  should  be  given  at  least  1J  hours  to  cool,  to  no 
steam  pressure,  and  the  boiler  should  be  well  filled  with  water 
all  the  time.  Water  should  stay  well  above  the  crown-sheet 
until  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  cooled  to  90°  in  summer  and  to 
70°  in  winter.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  wash-  and  filling-water 
will  average  from  20°  to  30°  F.  colder  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
This  applies  where  water  is  used  from  streams  or  tanks.  Where 
it  is  pumped  from  deep  wells,  there  will  not  be  this  difference.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  boilers  leak  more  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
Many  consider  a  boiler  cool  when  the  steam  is  gone,  and  draw 
the  water  out.  It  is  just  about  half  cool,  for  it  is  176°  from  388° 
(200  pounds  steam)  to  212°  (no  steam),  and  it  is  152°  from  212°  to 
60°,  the  temperature  of  average  wash-water. 

Blowlng-off. — Mr.  N.  O.  Goldsmith*  very  aptly  says:  "  To 
lengthen  the  intervals  between  washing  out,  made  necessary 
by  concentration  to  a  dangerous  degree,  it  is  found  that  regular 
blowing  down  of  water  from  one  to  two  gauges,  depending  upon 
the  type  of  boiler,  and  pumping  up  fresh  water  is  decidedly  bene- 
ficial. There  are  twenty-two  Cahali  vertical  boilers,  250  horse- 
power each,  at  the  blast-furnace  plant;  in  normal  working  con- 
dition each  of  these  holds  292  cubic  feet,  equal  to  2200  U.  S.  gallons. 
When  6  inches  are  blown  down  about  100  gallons  of  water  are 
discharged;  if  this  is  done  once  every  twelve  hours,  an  amount 
equal  to  the  entire  capacity  of  the  boiler  is  blown  away  in  eleven 
days.  The  objection  to  blowing  out  hot  water  and  pumping  in 
cooler  water  is  recognized  as  not  being  an  economical  practice, 
but  it  is  one  cf  the  penalties  steam-users  must  pay  when  they  are 
compelled  to  use  water  containing  comparatively  small  amounts 
of  soluble  impurities  and  want  to  keep  their  boilers  free  from 
scale.  Therefore  in  order  to  get  the  best  condition,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  chemical  analysis  not  only  of  the  raw  water  and  the  treated 
water  but  also  of  the  concentrated  water  from  the  blow-off  cock. 
This  should  be  started  when  clean  boilers  are  put  in  service  and 
samples  should  be  taken  at  regular  intervals  and  the  concentra- 
tion watched.  By  this  means  it  can  be  determined  how  long  it 
is  safe  to  run  without  washing;  this  interval  will  vary  with  the 

*  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  882. 


116  BOILER-WATERS. 

condition  of  the  raw  water  at  different  locations,  as  upon  the  raw 
water  depends  th6  character  of  the  softened  water. 

"If  the  length  of  time  between  boiler-washings  can  be  in- 
creased three  or  four  times  over  what  was  necessary  before  softened 
water  was  used  and  regular  blowing  down  put  in  practice,  and 
if  it  is  found  unnecessary  to  use  scrapers  or  tube-cleaning  machines 
at  all,  because  no  scale  accumulates  or  builds  up;  if  open-exhaust 
steam-heaters  can  be  run  from  six  months  to  one  year  without 
cleaning,  if  no  live-steam  purifiers  are  required  and  no  boiler 
compound  used,  then  by  the  use  of  softened  water  the  percentage 
of  idle  capital  is  decreased.  The  fuel  economy  is  increased,  first, 
because  a  clean  heater  gives  hotter  feed-water;  second,  the  fuel 
used  to  heat  up  a  cold  boiler  is  more  than  that  used  to  keep  steam 
in  a  hot  one;  third,  a  clean  boiler  will  evaporate  more  water  than 
a  dirty  one." 

In  marine  work  the  old  rule  was  to  begin  "bio wing-off  "  as 
soon  as  the  proportion  of  saline  ingredients  had  become  about 
twice  the  normal  in  sea-water,  and  this  was  kept  up  steadily 
throughout  the  voyage. 

The  idea  as  to  what  would  have  happened  if  there  had  not 
been  the  blowing-off  must  have  been  something  wonderful,  for 
the  amount  of  scale  which  was  actually  produced  under  this  regi- 
men was  enormous. 

It  has  been  shown  that  sulphate  of  lime  is  deposited  not  so 
much  on  account  of  increased  density  as  by  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture, thus  forming  an  exception  to  the  usual  rule  with  salts  which 
are  more  readily  soluble  in  hot  than  in  cold  water.  In  fact,  when 
the  steam  pressure  was  in  excess  of  60  pounds  every  bit  of  sul- 
phate of  lime  would  be  deposited,  even  before  any  of  the  water 
was  evaporated.  The  method  followed  therefore  increased  the 
deposit  of  scale,  involving  as  it  did  an  increased  amount  of  sea- 
water. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PRIMING  AND  FOAMING. 

Priming. — A  boiler  is  said  to  prime  when  water  is  carried 
as  steam-bubbles,  with  the  steam  up,  through  the  water  to  its 
surface,  and  may  be  considered  as  affecting  the  entire  depth  of 
the  water  in  a  boiler. 

Foaming  is  the  result  of  suspended  impurities  in  the  water, 
which  rise  to  its  surface  in  a  more  or  less  dirty  condition  and  forms 
a  scum.  Pure  water  cannot  produce  foam;  steam  from  a  boiler 
which  foams  is  dryer  than  that  from  a  boiler  which  primes. 

Surface  bio  wing-off  is  a  remedy  for  foaming;  foaming  is  a 
surface  condition.  A  boiler  supplying  dry  steam,  when  not  over- 
worked, may  prime  heavily  when  it  is  hard  pressed. 

William  A.  Fairburn,  in  a  paper  on  "The  Water-tube  Boiler 
in  the  American  Mercantile  Marine,"  read  before  the  Soc.  Nav. 
Archs.  and  Marine  Engrs.,  1902,  says:  "Water  which  causes  prim- 
ing produces  foam  in  the  boiler,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  bubbles, 
so  durable  that  they  remain  a  considerable  time  without  breaking, 
and  by  them  the  steam-space  of  a  boiler  may  be  entirely  filled. 
When  this  takes  place,  instead  of  steam  leaving  the  boiler,  the 
discharge  is  composed  of  foam,  which  becomes  broken  up  in  its 
journey  through  the  steam-pipe  and  is  carried  into  the  engine 
cylinders  as  water.  Pure  water  is  incapable  of  forming  bubbles. 
Sometimes  sea-water  will  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  but  when 
mixed  with  fresh  water,  priming  takes  place.  There  are  so-called 
pure  fresh  waters  that  cannot  be  mixed  without  priming,  and 
Mr.  Fairburn  has  had  such  an  experience  with  water  from  springs, 
surface  reservoirs,  and  a  sunken  well,  all  taken  within  a  radius 
of  300  feet.  But  all  these  facts  apply  to  Scotch  boilers  as  well  as 
water-tube  boilers,  the  only  advantage  in  favor  of  the  fire-tube 

117 


1 18  BOILER-WATERS. 

boiler  being  less  work  involved  in  'brining'  or  'blowing-oftV 
Some  of  the  Thorneycroft-built  torpedo-boats,  fitted  with  small 
tube  boilers  with  accelerated  circulation,  we  are  told,  have  steamed 
for  weeks  with  nothing  but  salt  water  in  the  boilers  and  no  trouble 
has  been  experienced. 

In  the  early  days  of  railroading  on  the  B.  &  O.  a  locomotive 
with  a  round  fire-box  boiler,  something  like  the  style  of  the  present 
Fitzgibbons  boiler,  always  pruned  when  pulling  a  train  up  a  cer- 
tain grade.  If  feed-water  was  pumped  into  the  boiler  at  this  time, 
priming  would  cease  at  once,  the  cause  of  the  trouble  being  the 
intense  heat,  which  impinged  upon  the  water-leg  of  the  fire-box 
with  restricted  water  space,  which  was  partially  empty. 

The  vertical  staggering  of  tubes  in  fire-tube  boilers  used  to 
be  considered  the  best  way  to  distribute  the  flues.  Under  the 
low-steam  pressures  then  in  vogue  there  was  no  trouble  from 
priming  with  boilers  so  built,  which,  however,  is  the  tendency 
when  the  high  pressures  now  in  vogue  are  used,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  tendency  of  a  boiler  to  prime  decreases  as  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  increases  and  increases  as  the  water  surface 
diminishes. 

Mineral  oil  is  sometimes  injected  into  boilers  to  prevent  priming. 

To  cure  priming  on  the  U.  S.  steamship  Galena,  bolts  were  sub- 
stituted for  some  of  the  tubes  coming  under  the  smoke-stack. 

If  foaming  or  priming  is  especially  violent,  the  draft  should 
be  shut  off  at  once  and  the  fires  covered  up  until  the  cause  can 
be  removed. 

The  writer  recently  tested  three  horizontal  return  tubular 
boilers,  one  of  which  had  been  cleaned  a  few  days  before  the  test, 
the  other  two  being  dirty.  With  a  total  heating-surface  of  5880 
square  feet,  during  a  ten-hour  test  these  boilers  developed  514 
horse-power.  At  two  different  periods  during  the  test,  when  an 
extra  supply  of  steam  was  demanded  from  the  boilers,  the  two 
dirty  boilers  primed  badly,  and  the  extra  load  had  to  be  carried 
by  other  boilers  in  the  steam-plant,  the  one  clean  horizontal  boiler 
giving  no  trouble.  Since  the  test  was  made  the  two  boilers  were 
opened  and  found  to  contain  considerable  scale,  varying  from  Jg 
to  &  inch  in  thickness,  of  a  very  dark  color,  the  surface  being 
dark  red  only  and  the  scale  very  rotten  to  the  touch ;  considerable 
fine  dirt  of  the  same  general  character  was  also  found.  These 


FOAMING.  119 

troubles  are  caused  by  contracted  water-space  and  steam-liberat- 
ing surface,  by  contracted  steam-space,  by  boilers  poorly  designed, 
and  by  trying  to  get  a  much  higher  boiler  horse-power  than  the 
boiler  was  designed  to  give. 

Foaming. — The  alkali  solids  or  those  which  cause  foaming 
include : 

Salts  of  sodium; 

Salts  of  potassium; 

Sodium  chloride. 

One  water  in  the  West  which  contained  1.16  grains  per  gallon 
of  sodium  sulphate  before  softening,  had  20  grains  of  the  same 
after  treatment,  and  in  the  same  part  of  the  country  experiment 
has  shown  that  water  containing  175  grains  per  gallon  of  alkali 
(sulphate  and  carbonate  of  soda)  has  caused  locomotive  boilers 
to  foam  badly. 

It  may  have  been  noticed  that  sodium  sulphate  is  the  most 
prominent  substance  in  softened  water  in  many  cases.  It  is  an 
absolutely  neutral  salt,  and  sodium  and  sulphuric  acid  being 
about  the  strongest  alkali  and  acid,  it  is  not  possible  to  find  a 
stronger  one  of  either  class  to  break  up  the  compound. 

The  amount  of  sodium  sulphate  usually  present  in  softened 
water  does  no  harm.  If  water  is  specially  high  in  this  salt, 
blowing-off  must  be  practiced  to  prevent  too  great  concentra- 
tion or  foaming  will  be  the  outcome. 

There  are  no  two  types  of  boiler  exactly  alike  in  their  working; 
one  boiler  is  better  suited  to  its  work  than  another  type  would 
be  to  take  its  place. 

One  of  the  prominent  manufacturers  of  softeners  conducted 
some  experiments  to  see  what  amount  of  sodium  sulphate  several 
types  of  boilers  would  carry  and  not  cause  foaming;  he  found 
these  figures  to  be  approximately  correct: 

A.  Old-type  two-flue   boiler,   1000  grains  of  sodium  sulphate 
(Na2SO4)  to  the  gallon  when  the  boiler  was  working  at  its  maximum 
capacity.     Steam  pressure,  50  pounds. 

B.  Ordinary    horizontal    return  tubular    boiler,   500    to    600 
grains;  same  conditions.     Steam  pressure,  100  pounds. 

C.  Modern  water-tube  boiler,  such  as  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  or 
Heine,    300   to   400   grains;    same    conditions.     Steam   pressure, 
125  pounds. 


120  BOILER-WATERS. 

D.  Stirling  boiler,  250  to  300  grains;  same  conditions.     Steam 
pressure,  125  pounds. 

E.  Locomotive   boiler,   150  to  200  grains;    same  conditions. 
Steam  pressure,  200  pounds. 

It  was  found  that  the  steam  pressure  carried  had  very  little 
or  nothing  to  do  with  the  results  tested  for.  Allegheny  River 
water  was  used,  and  had  passed  through  a  filter  before  going  to 
the  boilers,  so  probably  did  not  contain  much  organic  matter. 

Carney  *  says  foaming  is  caused  by  interference  with  the  free 
escape  of  steam  from  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  manifests  itself 
by  the  rising  and  frequent  appearance  of  boiling  of  the  water  in 
the  water-glass  and  by  water  in  the  steam. 

He  gives  as  causes:  1,  sodium  salts;  2,  mud  or  suspended 
matter;  3,  organic  matter.  Mud  and  organic  matter  can  be 
removed  by  filtration,  but  there  is  no  practical  way  of  getting  rid 
of  sodium  salts.  The  sodium  salts  in  solution  increase  the  surface- 
tension  and  thereby  prevent  the  free  escape  of  steam  from  the 
water. 

Bubbles  formed  in  rapid  succession  constitute  a  froth  which 
fills  the  steam-space  of  the  boiler  and  passes  over  with  the  steam. 

Locomotive  boilers  foam  with  75  to  200  grains  of  alkali  per 
gallon,  while  stationary  boilers  have  been  run  successfully  without 
foaming  with  650  grains  of  sodium  salts  and  more  per  gallon. 
A  case  is  given  of  a  stationary  boiler  with  8.7  times  the  steam- 
liberating  surface  that  we  find  in  a  locomotive  boiler,  which  explains 
in  part  why  the  locomotive  boiler  foams  the  easier. 

C.  Herschel  Koyl,  in  the  Railroad  Gazette  of  October  12,  1900, 
says:  "  I  have  reasons  for  the  belief  that,  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  service,  boiler-foaming  takes  place  only  in  the  presence  of  par- 
ticles of  matter  suspended  in  the  water  in  the  boiler.  This  belief 
is  at  variance  with  the  usual  opinions  on  the  subject,  and  I  there- 
fore present  some  of  my  observations  and  the  conclusions  I  have 
drawn  therefrom. 

"Not  all  the  causes  of  foaming  are  known  with  certainty,  I 
believe,  to  any  one.  The  general  belief  f  appears  to  be  that  foam- 

*  A.  Inst.  Min.  Engrs.,  1897. 

t  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Association :  Report  of  Committee 
on  the  Best  Method  of  Preventing  Trouble  in  Boilers  from  Water  Impurities, 
1899. 


FOAMING.  121 

ing  is  produced  by  the  presence  of  the  salts  of  sodium — alkali 
salts — commonly  called  alkaline  salts,  though  some  of  them  are 
not  alkaline  at  all,  sodium  chloride,  for  instance,  being  common 
salt  and  having  no  alkaline  reaction,  sodium  sulphate  being  just 
as  neutral  as  sodium  chloride.  But  I  have  not  been  able  to  find 
evidence  of  water  caused  to  foam  by  the  alkali  salts  except  in 
the  presence  of  matter  in  suspension. 

"In  the  laboratory  I  have  many  times  fed  into  boiling  dis- 
tilled water  quantities  of  chemically  pure  sodium  carbonate,  up 
to  several  hundred  grains  per  gallon,  without  producing  any  foam- 
ing effect.  But  if  there  is  fed  into  the  boiling  distilled  water  a  fine 
insoluble  powder,  such  as  calcium  carbonate  or  magnesia  alba, 
the  water  will  soon  be  foaming  as  vigorously  as  any  one  could  wish. 

"If  hard  water  is  used  in  a  boiler  of  any  kind  until  a  scale 
has  been  formed  and  the  boiler  then  is  fed  with  rain-water  Or  any 
other  soft  water,  a  disintegrating  action  upon  the  scale  begins 
immediately,  the  water  is  filled  with  floating  particles  of  loosened 
scale,  and  a  violent  foaming  ensues. 

"It  is  frequently  the  case  in  railroad  service  that  a  locomotive 
is  supplied  from  a  tank  containing  hard  water,  which,  of  course, 
begins  to  form  scale  in  the  boiler,  and  that  later  the  locomotive 
is  supplied  from  another  tank  containing  alkaline  water.  In  this 
case  the  action  of  the  alkali  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  action  of 
the  rain-water,  or  of  soda-ash  when  used  as  a  boiler  compound, 
and  its  effect  is  not  only  to  precipitate  scale  matter  from  the  hard 
water,  but  also  to  disintegrate  the  scale  attached  to  the  boiler  and, 
from  these  two  sources,  to  fill  the  water  with  floating  particles, 
which  soon  start  the  boiler  foaming. 

"It  has  been  the  common  practice  to  attribute  the  foaming 
of  the  boiler  to  the  alkaline  water,  because  it  was  fed  in  just  before 
the  foaming  began,  while  according  to  my  opinion  it  was  only 
the  loosened  scale  matter  which  produced  the  foaming,  and  there 
would  have  been  no  foaming  had  there  been  no  scale.  It  is  per- 
fectly natural,  in  the  absence  of  other  information,  to  ascribe  the 
foaming  of  a  boiler  to  the  last  water  which  was  put  in;  but  in 
the  same  manner  it  might  be  asserted  that  two  taps  of  the  bell 
move  a  street-car,  because  the  street-car  moves  immediately  after 
the  two  taps  are  heard. 

"Three  physical  conditions  are  recognized  in  boiling  liquids 


122  BOILER-WATERS. 

in  the  laboratory,  and  doubtless  may  exist  in  boilers  of  any  size 
and  pressure:  (1)  ' Bumping/  when  the  steam  rises  in  great  bubbles 
and  tears  such  holes  through  the  liquid  that  vigorous  thumping 
upon  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  produced  by  the  liquid  falling 
back  to  its  place;  (2)  'Quiet  boiling/  when  the  steam  appears 
to  enter  the  water  freely  and  to  rise  through  it  without  difficulty; 
(3)  'Foaming/  when  the  steam  and  the  liquid  appear  to  be  so 
intimately  mixed  that  they  cannot  easily  be  separated,  and  the 
liquid  is  carried  up  and  out  with  the  bubbles  of  steam. 

"In  making  ammonia  determinations  by  the  Kjeldahl  method 
there  is  frequently  much  difficulty  in  preventing,  on  the  one  hand, 
bumping,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  foaming  of  the  alkaline  liquid 
during  distillation.  If  a  caustic-soda  solution,  strong  and  clear, 
is  used  to  liberate  the  ammonia  there  is  great  bumping,  frequently 
of  sufficient  violence  to  shatter  the  flask.  If  a  caustic-soda  solu- 
tion, strong  and  turbid  (from  various  suspended  impurities  present 
in  the  commercial  article),  is  used  there  is  furious  foaming.  But 
if  a  caustic-soda  solution,  strong  and  clear,  is  used  and  zinc  dust 
is  added  to  the  proper  amount  (very  little  suffices)  a  point  is 
reached  at  which  the  bumping  ceases  and  foaming  does  not  com- 
mence; while  if  more  zinc  dust  is  added  foaming  follows.  This 
illustration  appears  to  me  to  be  free  from  complications  and  to 
leave  open  no  other  conclusion  than  that  bumping  is  obviated, 
and  the  liquid  caused  to  boil  quietly,  by  the  introduction  of  a 
small  amount  of  insoluble  powder;  and  that,  given  a  quiet-boiling 
liquid,  foaming  is  produced  by  the  addition  of  a  little  more  in- 
soluble powder. 

"  Fortunately  there  are  analogies  for  illustration  which  may 
explain  why  a  few  particles  of  foreign  matter  may  prevent  boiling 
water  from  bumping  and  more  particles  may  cause  it  to  foam. 
It  is  well  known  that  perfectly  clean  water  in  a  perfectly  clean 
vessel  may  be  cooled  below  32°  F.  (0°  C.)  without  freezing,  or  that 
it  may  be  heated  above  212°  F.  (100°  C.)  without  boiling;  but  that 
dropping  into  it  a  small  piece  of  solid  matter  of  any  kind  will  cause 
it  in  the  one  case  to  begin  to  solidify  along  the  course  of  the  particle 
and  in  the  other  case  to  burst  into  steam  along  the  course  of  the 
particle.  These  are  the  phenomena  of  supercooling  and  super- 
heating, and  are  generally  ascribed  to  the  viscosity  or  cohesion 
or  internal  friction  of  the  water  which  prevents,  on  the  one  hand, 


FOAMING,  123 

freezing,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  formation  of  steam  bubbles, 
until,  in  the  one  case,  the  crystallizing  force  is  in  excess,  or,  in 
the  other  case,  the  internal  vapor-tension  exceeds  considerably 
the  external  pressure  or  vapor-tension. 

"If  now  perfectly  clean  water  in  a  perfectly  clean  boiler  tends 
to  remain  at  rest  and  therefore  to  become  superheated  at  the  heat- 
ing-surfaces, and  to  liberate  its  steam  only  at  intervals  and  then 
to  '  bump/  the  addition  of  some  foreign  matter,  such  as  is  in  all 
ordinary  water,  will  release  the  steam  more  frequently,  and  may  be 
made  to  do  it  at  such  intervals  as  to  result  in  quiet  boiling;  while 
if  these  particles  are  increased  in  number,  the  liberation  of  stearn 
throughout  the  water  in  the  vicinity  of  each  particle  may  produce 
such  an  almost  infinite  number  of  bubbles  that  the  boiling  water 
becomes  a  seething  mass  so  filled  with  bubbles  as  to  occupy  the 
whole  space  of  the  boiler  and  to  make  it  impossible  for  the 
bubbles  all  to  break  at  the  surface  without  throwing  up  quan- 
tities of  water  to  go  over  mechanically  with  the  steam.  This  is. 
foaming. 

"  In  boilers  working  at  a  high  temperature  there  is  seldom 
noticeable  bumping,  because  the  water  is  separated  from  the 
heating  surface  by  a  thin  layer  of  steam,  and  this  prevents  the 
superheating  of  the  water  which  gives  rise  to  the  sudden  bursts 
of  steam  which  produce  bumping.  If,  however,  the  boiler  is  cov- 
ered with  scale  which  separates  the  water  from  the  hot  iron,  and  a 
piece  of  this  scale  is  loosened  in  any  way  so  that  some  of  the  water 
may  strike  the  iron  which  is  at  a  much  higher  temperature  than 
the  water,  a  sudden  burst  of  steam  takes  place  sometimes  sufficient 
to  rupture  the  boiler.  If  a  stream  of  cold  water  condenses  the 
film  of  steam  and  so  reaches  a  hot  boiler-sheet,  the  same  sudden 
burst  of  steam  may  take  place  with  the  same  result  of  bursting  the 
boiler. 

"The  point  to  be  remembered,  is  that  this  bumping  in  any 
of  its  forms  is  due  to  the  superheating  of  the  water;  and  to  the 
sudden  release  of  large  quantities  of  steam  at  the  heating-surface. 
When  the  water  contains  a  small  number  of  particles  in  suspension, 
each  of  these  particles  serving  to  release  the  steam  and  therefore 
the  superheating  in  its  immediate  vicinity  (as  is  easily  seen  by 
observing  the  phenomenon  in  glass  vessels)  the  result  is  quiet 
boiling.  When  the  water  contains  a  very  large  number  of  sus- 


124  BOILER-WATERS. 

pended  particles,  each  serving  to  release  the  steam  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  steam  bubbles  are  formed  not  merely  at  the  heating 
surfaces  and  not  merely  at  a  few  other  places  but  in  every  part 
of  the  water,  with  the  result  of  increasing  the  space  occupied 
by  the  water  to  such  an  extent  that  the  water  may  be  forced 
out  of  the  steam-pipes. 

"Of  course  a  sudden  reduction  of  pressure  outside  the  boiler 
might  carry  over  water  in  any  quantity ;  water  saturated  with  air 
or  gas  would  boil  with  great  disturbance,  and  then  a  lot  of  soap 
put  into  a  boiler  would  produce  very  sticky  wet  steam,  but  by 
the  limitation  made  in  the  first  paragraph — 'under  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  service  ' — I  have  endeavored  to  eliminate  from  the  dis- 
cussion such  causes  as  are  not  likely  to  exist  in  ordinary  boiler  work, 
but  to  include  others  which  do  occur,  such  as  heavy  hill -climbing 
when  for  a  time  the  engine  is  calling  for  enormous  amounts  of 
steam  and  the  water  in  the  boiler  must  be  in  ideal  condition  if  such 
amounts  of  steam  are  to  rise  through  it  without  taking  it  along. 

"Of  the  ordinary  cases  of  boiler  foaming:  (1)  That  produced 
by  the  use  of  boiler  precipitants  I  explain  as  above,  and  hold 
that  the  foaming  is  produced  by  the  suspended  matter  in  the 
water  and  without  regard  to  the  amount  of  alkali  salts  in  the 
water,  except  in  so  far  as  this  may  be  a  gauge  of  the  amount  of 
matter  precipitated;  (2)  That  produced  by  the  use  of  alkaline 
feed-water  I  explain  in  the  same  way,  with  the  exception  noted 
in  a  later  paragraph;  (3)  The  foaming  produced  by  water  from 
some  of  the  western  rivers  which  contain  mud  and  organic  matter 
appears  to  me  to  be  explicable  on  this  theory  and  on  no  other, 
for  many  of  these  waters  contain  no  alkali ;  (4)  The  foaming  some- 
times produced  in  a  locomotive  fed  from  a  water-softening  machine, 
may  be  due  to  either  of  three  causes,  (a)  the  boiler  may  have 
been  coated  with  scale  which  the  soft  water  disintegrates  and 
loosens,  (b)  the  water  furnished  by  the  machine  may  not  have 
settled  well,  nor  have  been  filtered,  so  that  it  contains  matter 
n  suspension  when  it  enters  the  boiler,  or  (c)  the  machine  may 
not  have  been  capable  of  completing  the  softening  of  the  water 
(there  are  such  machines),  but  if  the  proper  amount  of  chemicals 
has  been  supplied  to  the  water,  this  softening  action — this  scale- 
matter  precipitation — is  completed  within  the  boiler  and  of  course 
produces  foaming. 


FOAMING.  125 

"It  is  probable  that  the  presence  of  alkali  salts  does,  by  increas- 
ing the  surface-tension  of  the  water,  increase  the  severity  of  the 
foaming  which  results  from  the  cause  above  mentioned;  but,  so 
far  as  I  know,  the  production  of  foaming  by  the  use  of,  say,  salt 
water — alkali  water  but  not  alkaline  water — takes  place  only 
when  the  solution  is  so  concentrated  as  to  be  filled  with  particles 
of  solid  salt;  and  the  view  of  the  case  which  holds  that  foaming 
is  due  to  alkali  alone  could  be  established  only  by  feeding  perfectly 
clean  alkali  water  into  an  absolutely  clean  boiler,  which,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  is  difficult  to  find  among  boilers  which  have  been 
in  service. 

"One  apparent  exception  serves  only  to  prove  the  rule.  It 
is  possible  to  have  a  clean  alkali  water,  containing  only  sodium 
bicarbonate,  foaming  in  a  clean  boiler  through  the  combination 
of  three  causes:  (1)  the  separation  in  innumerable  bubbles  of 
the  large  amount  of  loosely  combined  CO2J  (2)  the  concentration 
of  the  liquid  so  as  to  produce  considerable  surface-tension,  and 
(3)  the  very  rapid  generation  of  steam  in  a  boiler  of  inadequate 
steam  space. 

"Foaming  occasions  such  loss  of  water  and  of  heat,  creates 
so  much  danger  to  the  boiler  from  uncertainty  as  to  the  height 
of  water,  detracts  so  much  from  the  power  and  efficiency  of  the 
engine,  and  has  left  unremunerative  so  many  dollars  sunk  in 
wells  the  water  of  which  cannot  be  used,  that  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  a  determination  of  the  causes  of  foaming,  and  there- 
fore of  its  remedy,  are  great,  and  I  believe  the  railroad  world  would 
thank  the  Railroad  Gazette  to  gather  and  present  all  the  individual 
bits  of  knowledge  (and  perhaps  of  speculation)  so  tha"t  from 
them  we  may  form  a  complete  and  consistent  theory. 

"  In  the  issue  of  the  Railroad  Gazette  of  October  12,  1900,  C. 
Herschel  Koyl  presented  a  paper  bearing  the  title  'The  Cause 
of  Foaming  in  Locomotive  Boilers.' 

"At  that  time  I  had  had  no  opportunity  to  make  tests  on  a 
locomotive  in  service,  and  my  statement  was  based  upon  theo- 
retical considerations,  laboratory  tests,  and  observations  on  sta- 
tionary boilers. 

"During  the  months  of  May  and  June,  1901,  however,  through 
the  determination  of  the  management  of  the  Rio  Grande  Western 
Railroad  to  learn  the  possibilities  of  purification  in  the  matter 


126  BOILER-WATERS. 

of  the  extremely  bad  water  of  the  Colorado  desert,  I  had  abundant 
opportunity  to  test  and  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  my  theory. 

"The  distance  across  the  Colorado  desert  by  the  line  of  the 
R.  G.  W.  R.  R.  from  Helper  to  Grand  Junction  is  approximately 
175  miles.  At  each  of  the  terminal  points,  Helper  and  Grand 
Junction  (Ruby),  there  is  one  of  my  water-softening-and-clarifying 
machines  to  put  into  good  boiler  condition  the  hard  and  muddy 
waters  which  supply  the  railroad  at  these  places.  At  intervals 
across  the  division  there  are  some  eight  or  nine  other  points  at 
which  water  may  be  taken. 

"  Previous  to  my  visit  the  locomotives  had  taken  water  at  any 
of  the  different  stations  as  required,  and  it  had  been  noticed  that 
the  boilers  generally  foamed  after  taking  soft  clear  water  from 
my  machines.  Arrangements  were  made  to  equip  one  test  locomo- 
tive with  two  water-cars  of  sufficient  capacity  to  carry  the  locomo- 
tive with  a  freight  train  across  the  division  with  softened  water 
only. 

"Before  starting  the  boiler  was  thoroughly  washed  at  Helper 
so  that  all  mud  and  loose  scale  were  taken  out  (though  a  nearly 
uniform  coat  of  hard  scale  J  inch  thick  remained),  then  the  boiler 
and  the  two  water-cars  were  filled  with  the  soft  clear  water  from 
my  machine,  and  the  test  began.  The  run  to  the  other  end  of 
the  division  was  made,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  loco- 
motive, without  the  faintest  sign  of  foaming,  though  the  train 
was  heavy  and  there  are  numerous  grades,  and  the  engine  was 
not  spared.  At  the  end  of  the  run,  after  blowing  out  the  water 
from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  to  free  it  from  the  loosened  scale, 
another  supply  of  softened  water  was  taken  on  from  my  machine 
at  Ruby,  and  the  return  run  was  made  with  equally  satisfactory 
results. 

"  Following  this  the  operation  was  repeated  day  after  day,  until 
it  was  demonstrated  beyond  question  that  the  locomotive  supplied 
exclusively  with  the  soft  clear  water  from  my  water-softening 
machines  could  be  operated  to  the  limit  of  her  speed  and  power 
without  foaming,  so  long  as  the  old  scale,  which  was  slowly  flaking 
off,  was  not  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler. 
It  was  found  that  the  first  run  of  350  miles  brought  down  enough 
fine  scale  to  make  her  foam,  when,  of  course,  she  had  to  be  washed 
out,  but  as  the  old  scale  in  the  boiler  gradually  grew  less  it  came 


FOAMING.  127 

down  more  slowly,  and  soon  we  were  able  to  run  1400  miles  between 
washings. 

"Then  one  day,  after  the  boiler  had  been  thoroughly  washed 
out,  I  dissolved  in  the  tender-  and  car-waters  almost  pure  sodium 
carbonate,  to  the  amount  of  300  grains  per  gallon  of  water,  and 
started  the  run  with  an  extra  heavy  train  —  indeed  about  the 
limit  of  the  hauling  capacity  of  the  locomotive — and  there  was 
for  several  hours  no  more  sign  of  foaming,  up  hill  or  down,  than 
if  the  alkali  had  been  left  out.  Before  the  end  of  the  run,  however, 
large  quantities  of  old  scale  were  loosened  and  considerable  foaming 
followed.  That  night  we  washed  out  of  the  boiler  more  than  twice 
as  much  loosened  scale  as  usual,  and  the  next  day  repeated  the 
test  with  similar  results,  viz.,  no  foaming  due  to  alkali,  but  later, 
plenty  of  foaming  due  to  loosened  scale  whipped  fine. 

"This  was  the  only  demonstration  lacking  to  my  paper  of 
October  12,  1900,  and  I  now  consider  the  statement  proved  beyond 
question  that,  '  under  ordinary  conditions  of  service,  boiler  foaming 
takes  place  only  in  the  presence  of  particles  of  matter  suspended 
in  the  water  in  the  boiler/  J 

Foaming  is  the  cause  of  much  waste  of  fuel  and  water,  and 
also  puts  a  very  uncertain  danger  element  right  before  you,  for 
the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  not  known  to  any  degree 
of  certainty,  and  foaming  must  be  kept  out  of  a  boiler  or  the  danger 
of  explosion  will  be  present  to  a  very  uncertain  degree. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
OIL. 

IN  studying  the  efficiencies  of  all  types  of  steam-engines  it  is 
found  that  with  a  very  few  exceptions  all  of  the  steam  that  is  ex- 
hausted from  them  contains  oil  that  has  served  its  useful  purpose 
as  a  lubricator,  and  this  oil  passing  to  the  boiler,  if  the  steam 
is  condensed  and  returned  as  feed-water,  is  capable  of  doing  great 
harm  in  the  boiler  by  causing  burnt  plates  and  aiding  corrosion. 

It  looks  as  though  the  steam-turbine  would  prove  the  most 
economical  steam-engine  now  in  the  market,  and  with  its  low  rate 
of  steam-consumption  per  horse-power-hour  when  it  is  operated, 
condensing,  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  no  oil  gets  in  the  steam 
passages.  A  surface-condenser  can  be  used  in  connection  with  it 
and  the  exhaust  steam  be  returned  to  the  boiler  as  pure  feed-water 
without  the  necessity  of  using  and  maintaining  any  oil  separators. 

The  use  of  a  steam-turbine  would  result  in  a  boiler  plant  of 
minimum  size,  and  a  much  greater  life  in  the  boilers  themselves, 
which  latter  benefit  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by  those  who 
have  had  the  troubles  from  the  oil  required  to  lubricate  "  oil-fed  " 
engines. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  and  interest  would  also  be  very  much 
less,  in  fact  the  above  remarks  will  apply  in  a  measure  to  all  steam- 
plants  using  but  little  oil,  and  be  the  more  applicable  as  the  quan- 
tity becomes  less  and  less. 

L.  F.  Lyne  *  in  testing  two  different  boilers  of  100  H.P.  each  for 
the  efficiency  of  scale  prevention  used  kerosene  oil  in  one  and 
petroleum  in  the  other.  Some  of  the  results  follow. 

*  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  X. 

128 


OIL. 


129 


Kerosene. 

Crude  Oil. 

After  using  one  gallon 
each    week    for    one 
month        

No  dirt  or  scale 

Considerable  loose  scale. 

Four  months  afterward. 

Clean 

One  bushel  of  hard  scale.  Groov- 
ing in  top  of  water-gauge  glass 
and  corrosion. 

Corrosive  action  with  loose,  hard  scales  appeared  always  when 
the  crude  petroleum  was  used  and  disappearing  while  kerosene 
was  used.  The  tar  and  wax  in  crude  petroleum  combine  with  the 
sediment  in  steam-boilers  and  form  a  paste  that  successfully  keeps 
the  water  from  reaching  the  sheet  and  it  burns  out. 

Avoid  bringing  a  torch  too  near  a  boiler  which  has  had  kerosene 
used  in  it,  as  the  gas  from  the  oil  is  liable  to  explode  if  a  light  is 
brought  near  its  vent  outlet. 

Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter  *  in  1889  used  refined  kerosene  in  boilers 
badly  scaled.  The  custom  at  this  plant  had  been  to  knock  off 
the  scale,  which  was  J  inch  thick,  with  a  hammer  and  scaling-tools, 
at  an  annual  cost  of  $18  to  $25,  and  then  two-thirds  of  the  heating- 
surface,  being  inaccessible,  was  not  cleaned. 

For  tubular  boilers  4  feet  in  diameter  by  12  feet  long  the 
best  results  were  obtained  by  using  2  quarts  or  ^  gallon  of  kerosene 
per  boiler  per  week.  The  oil,  which  cost  $2  per  annum,  loosened 
the  scale. 

The  artesian  well-water  used  in  the  boilers  had  this  analysis: 

CaCO3 206  parts  in  1,000,000 

MgC03 78     "      " 

Fe2CO3 22     "     "         " 

and  traces  of  sulphates  and  chlorides  of  potash  and  soda. 

C.  W.  Nason,*  with  a  boiler  5  ft.  in  diameter  by  16  ft.  long,  used 
half  of  the  above  quantity  of  crude  petroleum  to  remove  scale 
£  to  J  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  which  in  a  month 's  time  it  did 
thoroughly,  all  being  loosened  up  and  falling  to  the  bottom  of 
the  shell  in  large  flakes. 

In  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  use  water  in  which  the  total 
solid  residue  is  large,  a  heavy  petroleum  oil  free  from  tar  or  wax, 


5  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  R,  Vol.  XI,  p.  937. 


130  BOILER-WATERS. 

which  is  not  acted  upon  by  acids  or  alkalies,  not  having  sufficient 
wax  in  it  to  cause  saponification  and  which  has  a  vaporizing- 
point  at  nearly  600°  F.7  will  give  the  best  results  in  preventing 
boiler-scale. 

The  action  of  this  oil  is  to  form  a  thin  greasy  film  over  the 
boiler-linings,  protecting  them  largely  from  the  action  of  acids 
in  the  water,  and  so  greasing  the  sediment  which  falls  as  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  scale  and  keeping  the  solid  residue  from 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  in  such  a  plastic,  suspended  condition 
that  it  can  be  easily  ejected  from  the  boiler  by  the  usual  method 
of  blowing-off. 

If  the  water  is  not  blown  off  sufficiently  often,  this  sediment 
forms  a  kind  of  "  putty  "  that  will  necessitate  the  cleaning  of  the 
boilers.* 

Deposits  of  grease  on  a  boiler-shell,  especially  fatty  substances 
readily  decomposed  by  heating,  seriously  interfere  with  the  trans- 
mission of  heat.  In  Blechynden's  and  Durston's  experiments  it 
was  found  that  the  slightest  trace  of  grease  on  a  boiler-plate  caused 
a  decided  fall  in  the  rate  of  heat  transmission. 

The  practice  (1893)  of  W.  A.  Doble,  of  the  Technical  Society 
of  the  Pacific  Coast,  is  to  wash  out  the  boiler,  and  when  refilled 
with  water  add  two  quarts  of  the  cheapest  grade  of  oil,  which 
generally  has  a  fire  test  of  1 10°  F.  Below  the  suction-pipe  of  the 
injector  and  connected  with  it  by  means  of  a  T  and  two  cocks  is 
a  well  holding  about  two  quarts  of  the  oil.  In  three  or  four  days 
this  well  is  filled  with  oil,  and  the  feed-water  passing  over  the  con- 
nection gradually  displaces  the  oil  and  carries  it  to  the  boiler, 
usually  taking  three  or  four  hours  to  displace  it  all.  This  opera- 
tion is  repeated.  Its  effect  is  not  to  prevent  the  precipitation  of 
the  lime  in  the  water,  but  to  cause  it  to  settle  in  the  form  of  a 
loose  powder  that  can  be  easily  blown  off. 

From  a  pamphlet  on  "  Oil,"  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  who 
prepare  "emerald  boiler  oil,"  we  learn  these  facts: 

"  Crude  oil  is  objectionable  in  that  it  contains  naphtha  or 
volatile  properties,  which  leave  in  it  an  element  of  danger  from 
manipulation;  it  likewise  contains  a  residual  product  still  more 
objectionable  when  inside  a  boiler. 

*  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  R,  Vol.  XVII. 


OIL.  131 

"  Kerosene  is  not  open  to  the  same  objections,  as  the  volatile 
properties  have  been  removed  in  the  process  of  refining;  its  fire 
test  is  not  high  enough  to  make  it  available. 

"  Illuminating-oil  in  most  States  stands  150°  F.  fire  test,  while 
the  boiling-point  of  water  or  its  steam-point  is  212°  F.,  which  is 
increased  as  steam  pressure  raises. 

"  Emerald  oil  when  produced  does  not  contain  the  volatile 
properties,  but  is  said  to  retain  certain  features  that  assist  in  scale 
prevention  or  removal.  Its  fire  test  is  high,  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  formation  of  a  gas  at  high  temperatures,  as  in  the 
case  of  kerosene  oil.  It  holds  impurities  in  suspension  so  that 
they  may  be  removed  by  a  skimmer.  It  is  said  to  soften  old 
scale,  prevent  pitting  and  corrosion." 

Oil  should  be  fed  to  a  boiler  drop  by  drop  through  a  sight-feed 
or  lubricator  adapted  to  the  purpose;  special  oil-feeders,  however, 
have  been  designed  for  this  purpose. 

Mr.  Jasper  E.  Cooper,  in  an  article  in  Cassier's  Magazine* 
;says:  "  An  analysis  of  a  filter  deposit  from  engines  without  internal 
lubrication  has  shown  that  about  20  per  cent  of  the  deposit  is 
fatty  matter.  This  no  doubt  enters  the  cylinder  and  so  becomes 
associated  with  the  steam  from  piston-  and  valve-rods.  When  a 
number  of  auxiliary  machines  are  exhausting  into  the  condenser 
the  quantity  of  oil  trapped  becomes  greater.  Engines  of  the 
enclosed  type,  in  which  the  cranks  work  in  a  bath  of  oil,  are  by 
far  the  most  troublesome  in  this  respect. 

Oil  after  being  deposited  in  a  boiler  does  not  retain  its  original 
appearance.  It  is  distilled  or  burned  off,  leaving  a  deposit  which 
from  appearances  one  would  say  was  quite  harmless.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  consequently  if  allowed 
to  remain  will  very  probably  cause  overheating.  One  would  natu- 
rally think  that  oil,  being  lighter  than  water,  would  remain  on 
the  surface;  but  it  is  evident  that  such  is  not  the  case.  The 
reason  is  that  the  oil,  coming  in  contact  with  small  particles  of 
lime  and  sticking  to  them,  soon  becomes  as  heavy  as  the  water, 
and  so  is  circulated  about  with  it  until  it  comes  into  contact  with 
a  tube  or  plate  and  sticks  to  the  surface. 

In  this  way  the  under  sides  of  the  tubes  are  just  as  liable  to 

*  August  1903,  p.  312. 


132 


BOILER-WATERS. 


become  incrustated  as  the  upper  sides,  and  in  the  same  manner, 
also,  it  differs  from  the  ordinary  boiler  incrustation. 

Experiments  by  Sir  John  Durston,*  1893,  with  a  fire  tempera- 
ture from  2190°  to  2500°  F.,  the  temperature  of  the  metal  at  the 
bottom  of  an  iron  vessel  J  inch  thick  when  the  surface  was 
clean  was  280°  F.;  on  mixing  5  per  cent  of  mineral  oil  with  the 
water  it  rose  to  310°  F.,  and  when  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  had 
a  coating  of  grease  ^  inch  thick  it  rose  to  518°  F. 

Mineral  oils  form  a  brown  varnish  when  deposited  in  a  boiler- 
plate, are  bad  conductors  of  heat  and  readily  cause  overheating 
of  the  metal. 

Bagging  of  Plates. — Effect  of  scale  in  steam-boilers  resulting 
in  distortion  due  to  overheating  was  discussed  by  C.  E.  Stromeyer 


• 


(Fidelity  &  Casualty  Co.) 


FIG.  28.— A  Bagged  Plate. 


before  the  Inst.  of  Naval  Archs.  in  1902.  He  found,  in  the  case 
of  a  flue-boiler  where  some  well-water  was  used,  that  the  furnace- 
sheet  bulged  in  two  places,  and  the  scale  over  one  bulge  not  broken 
through  retained  the  original  shape  without  fracture;  steam- 
pressure  was  40  pounds  by  gauge. 

Between   the  scale   and   bulged  sheet  he   thinks  was   super- 
heated steam,  which  was  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  allowing  the 
plate  to  get  red-hot.    The  scale  was  hard  and  J  inch  thick. 
*  Trans.  Inst.  Nav.  Engr.,  Vol.  34,  130. 


OIL.  133 

A  thin  film  of  oil  or  simply  a  drop  of  oil  on  the  sheet  may  cause 
bagging  by  preventing  any  water  from  reaching  the  sheet. 

This  is  one  of  the  baneful  results  from  the  use  of  oil  as  a  scale- 
preventative  or  boiler-cleanser. 

Extraction  of  Oil. — A  common  method  for  the  extraction  of 
oil  from  condensed  high-pressure  engine-steam  is  by  adding  to  the 
water  condensed  two  substances,  which  by  their  combination  form 
a  flocculent  precipitate,  which  precipitate  is  then  thoroughly  stirred 
through  the  water  so  that  it  gathers  up  the  fine  particles  of  oil  and 
carries  them  to  the  bottom  by  the  subsequent  settling. 

The  cheapest  and  best  substances  for  this  purpose  are  sodium 
hydroxide  and  ferrous  sulphate. 

This  process  was  patented  by  C.  H.  Koyl  in  1900. 

There  are  mechanical  methods  aiming  at  oil  extraction,  but 
they  frequently,  if  not  always,  leave  a  trace  of  oil,  as  in  the  results 
given  by  the  following  paragraph: 

One  case  gives  0.07  grain  of  oil  from  58,318  grains  of  water; 
another,  oil  "trace";  another,  0.10  grain  of  oil  from  58,318  grains 
of  water;  another,  0.023  grain  of  oil  from  58,318  grains  of  water. 
These  amounts  are  credited  to  the  use  of  the  Bundy  oil-separator. 

Some  tests  were  conducted  at  the  Brooklyn  Navy-yard  on  a 
250  H.P.  Ball  steam-engine,  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  F.  R. 
Button,  with  a  "Utility  oil-separator"  connected  to  a  12-inch 
exhaust-pipe  between  the  engine  and  the  surface-condenser; 
samples  of  water  were  taken  from  the  condensed  water  and  steam 
to  find  amount  of  oil  still  remaining.  In  the  first  test  90  per  cent 
of  the  oil  was  caught  in  the  separator,  and  in  the  mixture  of  water 
and  oil  issuing  from  the  condenser  8  parts  per  million  by  weight 
were  oil. 

This  last  statement  may  not  indicate  clearly  how  much  oil 
gets  into  the  boiler  if  the  condensed  mixture  is  used  as  feed-water. 

If  a  boiler  develops  350  boiler  horse-power  during  twelve  hours 
it  will  have  had  one  pound  of  oil  fed  to  it  in  that  length  of  time. 

Mr.  Chas.  Ekstraud  says  that  an  experience  of  fifteen  years 
indicates  that  the  higher  the  temperature  of  exhaust  steam  the 
less  oil  can  be  separated  no  matter  what  the  device  is  that  is  em- 
ployed. 

He  uses  an  open  tank  with  four  compartments,  filled  with  hay, 
charcoal,  coke,  or  other  filtering  material. 


134  BOILER-WATERS. 

Dividing  plates  are  so  arranged  that  the  water  flows  over  one, 
under  the  next,  and  repeats.  The  air-pump  discharges  into  one 
end  of  the  tank,  water  is  passed  out  by  gravity  at  the  other  end 
to  suction-reservoir  of  the  feed-pump. 

Surface-condenser  is  boiled  out  with  caustic  soda  annually. 

Mr.  W.  T.  Bonner  says  ammonia-alum  type  of  filters,  unless 
carefully  watched,  give  trouble,  and  feed-pipes  were  badly  eaten 
out  and  tubes  badly  pitted. 

A  boiler  inspector  who  has  examined  a  great  many  boilers 
using  condensed  exhaust-steam  as  part  of  the  feed-water  says, 
that  while  many  separators  remove  part  of  the  oil  returning  with 
the  steam  "there  is  still  enough  left  to  be  very  objectionable." 

Another  says  that  4000  separators  of  one  make,  in  use  now, 
meet  the  approval  of  the  boiler-insurance  company,  that  is,  the 
water  passing  through  them  is  allowed  as  boiler  feed-water. 

In  the  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  24,  p.  345,  an  English  device 
called  the  W.  J.  Baker  separator  is  described  and  illustrated. 

It  is  of  the  closed-tank  type,  with  baffles  of  wood,  and  by  its 
use  from  98  to  99  per  cent  of  the  oil  in  steam  is  separated. 

Mr.  Baker  insists  on  a  large  area  for  the  steam,  reducing  its 
velocity. 

Abroad  the  Rankin,  Harris  &  Edmuston  filters  are  used  largely 
in  naval  and  merchant  marine  vessels,  this  last  has  a  mate  in  this 
country  in  the  Ross  filter,  in  which  coarse  towelling  is  used  as  the 
filtering  medium. 

In  an  article  on  "Marine  Water  Filtering,"*  by  N.  Sinclair, 
he  gives  the  materials  used  as  turkish  towelling  and  pine  sawdust 
in  a  wire  cage  in  the  water-pipe.  For  area  of  the  filtering  passage 
the  Glasgow  Patents  Company  requires  for  filters  between  pump 
and  heater 

water  having  3  filtrations,  33  times  area  of  feed-pipe 

«  it         o  (i  /•,  •        t  c  it       it  (i 

"      1  filtration,    99     "       "     " 

Another  firm  thinks  200  times  area  of  feed-pipe  for  one  filtra- 
tion is  needed. 

The  Reeves  Company  give  3  inches  diameter  of  chamber  for 
every  J-inch  diameter  of  feed-pipe. 

*  Cassier's  Mag.,  Oct.  1897. 


For  turkish  towelling  as  a  filtering  medium,  at  a  common 
water  velocity  of  400  to  500  feet  per  minute,  the  Glasgow  Patents 
Company  rule  would  give: 

for  3  filtrations,  12  to  15    feet  per  minute  through  cloths 
(t  2         "  6  "     7i    tt      tt        u  (i  it 

"   1  filtration,      4  "    5      "      " 

Rankine  quotes  a  case  as  low  as  2J  feet  per  minute  through 
cloths,  and  others  do  not  give  over  2  feet  per  minute,  as  in  mer- 
chant steamship  practice. 

Oil  Separation  by  Electricity. — This  has  been  accomplished  by 
Messrs.  Davis  and  Perrett  of  London,  Eng.,*  by  passing  the 
water  through  a  wooden  tank  12  feet  long,  30  inches  wide,  and 
27  inches  deep,  the  water  flowing  in  parallel  streams  through  the 
three  compartments  into  which  the  tank  was  divided.  The  flow 
of  water  takes  place  between  iron  electrodes,  maintained  at  50 
volts  potential  between  adjacent  plates,  or  150  volts  across  the 
three  in  series. 

When  this  device  handled  2000  to  3000  gallons  of  water  per 
hour  it  is  said  to  have  reduced  from  1.07  to  0.01  grain  the  oil  per 
gallon  of  water,  and  at  an  expenditure  of  20  amperes  of  current. 
0.01  grain  per  English  gallon  equals  1  part  in  7,000,000  by  weight. 

Use  of  Crude  Oil  Under  Steam-boilers. — At  the  meeting  of  the 
Southwestern  Gas,  Electric  and  Street  Railway  Association  at 
San  Antonio,  Tex.,  in  1902,  it  was  stated  that  no  deleterious  effects 
had  been  observed  from  the  use  of  oil  where  proper  care  had  been 
exercised  in  installing  and  operating  the  burning  apparatus.  No 
extraordinary  pitting  of  tubes  and  shells  had  been  noted,  which 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  sulphur 
liberated  per  thousand  heat-units  is  less  with  oil  than  with  coal. 
One  danger  is  haste  in  raising  steam  from  cold  boilers.  Oil  is 
high  in  B.T.U.;  a  large  amount  can  be  burned  under  a  boiler  in 
a  short  time,  so  boilers  equipped  in  this  way  are  easily  forced 
beyond  their  rated  horse-power  and  they  become  more  liable  to 
overheating  and  similar  troubles. 

Grease  and  Scale  in  Boilers. — In  a  paper  before  the  Institute 
of  Naval  Architects  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Stromeyer,  of  Manchester,  England, 
on  "  Distortion  in  Boilers  due  to  Overheating,"  he  states  that  a 

*  Electrical  Engineer. 


1 36  BOILER-WATERS. 

film  of  grease  0.01  inch  thick,  a  layer  of  scale  0.1  inch  thick,  and 
a  steel  boiler-plate  10  inches  thick  offer  equal  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  heat.  In  other  words,  grease  offers  about  one  thousand 
times  and  scale  about  one  hundred  times  the  resistance  of  steel 
plates  to  the  passage  of  heat,  equal  thickness  being  considered. 
This  means  also  that  where  the  evaporation  of  3  pounds  of 
water  per  square  foot  of  heating-surface  per  hour  requires  a  dif- 
ference of  only  3°  F.  between  the  fire  side  and  the  water  side  of  a 
clean  ^-inch  furnace-sheet,  a  layer  of  scale  0.1  inch  thick  would 
necessitate  a  temperature  difference  of  60°  F.  A  film  of  grease 
would  necessitate  a  still  greater  temperature  difference,  and  the 
boiler  then  would  have  a  greatly  diminished  efficiency  as  a  steam 
producer  than  when  its  surfaces  were  clean. 

Grease. — Concerning  the  influence  of  grease  in  boilers  some 
curious  facts  have  been  developed: 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  introduction  of  grease  will  cause 
furnaces  to  bulge  and  tubes  to  burst,  but  at  the  same  time  an 
examination  of  the  injured  parts  shows  grease  to  be  absent  from 
them  although  present  in  other  parts  of  the  boiler. 

It  would  also  appear  that  grease  has  a  more  marked  effect 
in  otherwise  clean  boilers  than  in  those  covered  with  scale,  and 
it  is  far  more  injurious  where  forced  draft  is  used  than  with 
natural  draft. 

It  is  just  possible  that  grease  undergoes  a  chemical  change 
in  the  boiler,  rendering  it  a  far  worse  conductor  of  heat  than  when 
in  its  natural  state. 

Mr.  Stromeyer  suggests  the  influence  of  retarded  ebullition 
and  the  action  of  hammer-blows,  but  collapses  due  to  grease  occur 
gradually,  not  suddenly.  Stromeyer  and  Barren  say  the  peculiarity 
of  grease  deposits  in  boilers  is  that  their  effect  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  their  thicknesses.  We  have  seen  that  scale  of  J  inch  thickness 
will  raise  the  temperature  of  furnace-plates  about  300°  F.  As 
grease  offers  ten  times  more  resistance  to  heat,  one  would  expect 
that  -g^  inch  would  have  the  same  effect  as  this  thickness  of  scale, 
but  experience  shows  that  the  merest  trace  of  grease,  certainly 
less  than  TWS  mcn  or  one-tenth  of  the  above,  can  cause  far  more 
serious  injury  than  scale.  Various  explanations  have  been 
attempted.  According  to  one  of  these,  thin  films  of  grease  form 
tough  bubbles  on  the  heating-surface  and  prevent  the  water  from 


GREASE.  137 

keeping  it  cool.  Another  view  is  that  the  grease,  either  alone  or 
joined  to  mineral  matter,  forms  an  impalpable  powder  like  oxalate 
of  lime  and  other  precipitates,  and,  like  these,  retards  ebullition. 
In  support  of  these  views  we  find  a  fairly  well-founded  belief  that 
grease  in  boilers  is  more  injurious  if  these  boilers  are  clean  than 
if  they  are  coated  with  mineral  scale,  and  against  this  view  we 
have  the  undoubted  experience  that  land  boilers  with  scale  at 
once  give  trouble  if  condensed  water  is  used  instead  of  natural 
water.  Increase  of  pressure  above  110  pounds  seems  to  accentuate 
this  evil;  perhaps  this  may  be  due  to  decomposition  of  magnesium 
carbonate  when  this  temperature  is  reached. 

In  any  case  it  is  highly  desirable  to  remove  every  trace  of 
grease  from  the  feed-water.  This  cannot  be  done  by  filters,  and 
grease-separators  which  appear  to  be  rather  more  efficient  do  not 
remove  the  last  trace  of  grease. 

Grease  in  the  boilers  of  the  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  City  Hospital 
entered,  even  though  a  steam-separator  was  part  of  the  system 
for  preventing  this  very  thing.  The  sheets  of  two  or  three  boilers 
were  said  to  have  been  badly  damaged. 

Care  of  apparatus  prevents  damage,  when  careless  reliance  on 
machines  does  not. 

To  clean  a  boiler  containing  too  much  grease  use  sal-soda  or 
soda-ash,  10  to  25  pounds  to  a  boiler.  Grease  and  soda  form 
soap,  and  soap  is  very  readily  blown  out  of  a  boiler.  After  soda 
has  been  dissolved  and  put  in  a  boiler,  boil  up  the  water,  firing 
until,  say,  5  pounds  pressure  is  reached,  holding  it  there  for  a 
couple  of  days,  then  blow  off  slowly,  cooling  gradually.  If  any 
grease  is  left,  not  enough  soda  was  used  or  boiling  was  carried 
on  for  too  brief  a  period. 

Zinc. — Dr.  Kossman  says  that  the  use  of  zinc  in  boilers  for 
the  prevention  of  scale  is  useful  in  selenitic  waters,  but  as  against 
the  carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron  is  of  little  value,  the 
zinc  being  quickly  rendered  brittle  and  porous  and  reduced  to  a 
powder. 

Dr.  G.  E.  Moore,  after  analyzing  scale  and  zinc  from  Sound 
boats,  says  the  most  important  results  from  its  use  is  the  pro- 
tection of  the  plates,  etc.,  from  the  hydrochloric  acid  evolved 
from  the  chloride  of  magnesium  of  the  sea-water.  Zinc  slabs, 
blocks,  or  shavings  inclosed  in  a  perforated  vessel  should  be 


138  BOILER-WATERS. 

hung  in  the  water-space  throughout  its  length,  the  utmost  care 
being  taken  to  insure  perfect  contact  between  the  zinc  and  the 
boiler-shell.  Do  not  place  zinc  directly  over  the  furnace,  as  the 
zinc  oxide  falling  on  the  crown  sheet  causes  overheating  of  the 
sheet. 

One  square  inch  of  surface  of  zinc  is  suggested  for  every  50 
pounds  of  water  capacity  in  the  boiler,  but,  of  course,  should  be 
regulated  in  accordance  with  the  hardness  of  the  water  used. 

The  British  Admiralty  recommends  the  renewing  of  the  blocks 
whenever  the  decay  of  the  zinc  has  penetrated  to  a  depth  of 
}  inch  in  the  slab. 

Dr.  Corbigny  gives  this  hypothesis:  "  That  the  two  metals,  iron 
and  zinc,  surrounded  by  water  at  a  high  temperature  form  a 
voltaic  pile  with  a  single  liquid,  which  slowly  decomposes  the 
water. 

"  The  liberated  oxygen  combines  with  the  most  oxidizable  metal, 
the  zinc,  and  its  hydrogen  equivalent  is  disengaged  at  the  surface 
of  the  iron.  There  is  thus  generated  over  the  whole  extent  of 
the  iron  influenced  a  very  feeble  but  continuous  current  of  hydro- 
gen, and  the  bubbles  of  this  gas  isolate  at  each  instant  the  metal- 
lic surface  from  the  scale-forming  substance.  If  there  is  but  little 
of  the  latter,  it  is  penetrated  by  these  bubbles  and  reduced  to 
mud;  if  there  is  more,  coherent  scale  is  produced,  which  being 
kept  off  by  the  intervening  stratum  of  hydrogen,  takes  the  form 
of  the  iron  surface  without  adhering  to  it." 

W.  F.  Worthington  thinks  that  zinc  used  in  marine  boilers 
has  considerable  effect  in  neutralizing  the  oxygen  in  the  water. 

After  either  cast-  or  rolled-zinc  plates  have  been  suspended 
in  a  boiler  under  steam  for  some  months,  the  plates  are  frequently 
found  brittle  and  to  have  an  earthy  fracture;  chemical  analysis 
shows  that  the  zinc  has  been  converted  to  an  oxide  which  must 
have  obtained  its  oxygen  from  the  water. 

3.2  pounds  of  oxygen  in  1  ton  of  water  would  require  13  pounds 
of  zinc  resulting  in  ZnO. 

In  marine  boilers,  in  some  instances,  the  use  of  zinc  plates  has 
been  found  to  cause  harder  scale  and  more  adherent  scale  than 
ever  before. 

In  boilers  in  which  fresh  water  is  used  and  where  calcareous 
scale  forms,  giving  much  trouble,  zinc  plates  have  proved  ineffectual. 


ZINC.  139 

A.  M.  Hannay  devised  over  twenty  years  ago  a  zinc  ball  with 
a  copper  conductor  running  through  it,  the  copper  being  amalga- 
mated with  the  zinc  at  its  junction  with  it,  forming  brass,  so  that 
no  corrosion  could  form  between  the  metals  and  shut  off  the  gal- 
vanic current. 

Galvanic  Action. — Marine  Steam,  says:  " Formerly  nearly  all 
corrosion  in  boilers  was  attributed  to  this  cause,  and  zinc  slabs 
were  suspended  everywhere  possible  within  the  water-space.  The 
position  of  zinc  relative  to  that  of  iron  in  the  scale  of  electro- 
positive metals  causes  it  to  be  attacked  instead  of  the  metals 
of  the  boiler,  when  galvanic  action  takes  place. 

"  To  afford  protection  by  the  use  of  zinc,  however,  there  must 
be  positive  metallic  contact  between  the  zinc  and  iron. 

"  Practically,  it  is  impossible  to  maintain  this  contact  with  the 
usual  methods  of  installation,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  no  gal- 
vanic current  exists  after  a  few  hours  of  steaming  in  the  arrange- 
ments ordinarily  employed. 

"  The  use  of  zinc,  however,  should  not  be  abandoned  on  this 
account  as  it  appears  still  a  very  important  element  of  protection 
against  corrosion  due  to  air  in  feed-water.  Its  suspension  in  drums 
and  points  within  the  boiler  near  the  entrance  of  the  feed  is  recom- 
mended as  of  positive  benefit,  and,  indeed,  as  long  as  zinc  slabs 
continue  to  disintegrate  and  oxidize  in  a  boiler  they  deflect  to 
themselves  from  the  iron  just  that  amount  of  harmful  action." 

Electrolytic  Action. — In  the  U.  S.  Navy  the  rapid  destruction 
of  copper  piping  in  several  vessels  has  already  caused  serious  em- 
barrassment, and  the  reason  for  this  deterioration  has  not  yet 
been  determined  to  an  absolute  certainty.  As  it  always  happens  to 
a  copper  pipe,  conveying  or  surrounded  by  salt  water,  and  as  the 
injection  or  delivery-pipe  to  a  pump  of  the  coil  of  a  fresh-water 
distiller  is  the  part  attacked,  and  as  the  deterioration  occurs  only 
in  steel  ships  fitted  with  dynamos  it  is  thought  that  the  injury 
may  be  caused  by  electrolytic  action;  for  the  copper  of  which 
the  pipes  are  made  is  known  to  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  abso- 
lutely free  from  foreign  matter,  and  therefore  not  affected  by  the 
corrosive  action  of  salt  water.  In  fact,  precisely  similar  pipes 
made  of  the  same  material  last  almost  indefinitely  in  iron  vessels, 
like  the  Alert  or  Ranger,  which  have  no  dynamos. 

Mr.  Chas.  H.  Haswell  was  the  first  to  suggest  and  use  the  gal- 


140  BOILER-WATERS. 

vanic  properties  of  zinc  to  prevent  corrosion  in  marine  boilers 
using  sea-water.  He  used  zinc  thirty  years  before  English  en- 
gineers advocated  its  use  as  a  new  thing. 

Removing  Boiler-scale.— Mr.  S.  M.  Green,  in  Power,  1896,  says: 
"  I  have  been  using  a  device  that  is  comparatively  new,  and  I  think 
that  a  description  of  the  apparatus  and  the  work  it  has  accom- 
plished may  be  of  interest  to  your  readers. 

"  The  device  consists  essentially  of  a  cylinder  of  cast  iron,  about 
12  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  a  length  varying  according  to  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  handled.  Contained  within  this  cylinder 
are  a  succession  of  perforated  copper  and  zinc  plates,  arranged  in 
alternate  layers,  and  through  which  the  feed-water  passes.  This 
device  was  brought  to  my  attention  about  two  years  ago,  and  I 
was  induced  to  place  it  upon  a  plant  of  four  Manning  upright 
boilers,  where  I  had  been  having  some  trouble  with  scale  collecting 
around  the  base  of  the  tubes,  on  the  crown-sheet.  It  has  now 
been  in  active  service  for  about  eighteen  months,  and  I  have  used 
no  scale  resolvent  of  any  kind  in  these  boilers.  They  are  abso- 
lutely clean.  The  galvanic  action  affects  the  scale,  forming  prop- 
erties contained  in  the  water,  preventing  the  formation  of  scale, 
but  making  a  deposit  in  the  boiler  of  soft  mud,  which  is  readily 
removed  by  blowing  and  washing. 

"In  one  case  the  water  used  is  from  an  artesian  well,  and  is 
very  hard,  the  analysis  showing  31  grains  per  gallon  of  solids  con- 
sisting of  calcium  sulphate,  and  carbonate,  sodium  chloride,  mag- 
nesium chloride,  and  organic  matter.  This  water  has  been  used 
in  the  boiler  for  six  months,  and  the  boiler  is  as  clean  as  when  new. 
It  has  been  washed  out  every  six  weeks,  and  all  impurities  have 
come  out  as  mud." 

Mr.  William  Thomson,  in  a  paper  before  the  Manchester  (Eng.) 
Society  of  Engineers,  says:  "When  iron  combines  with  oxygen,  as 
much  energy  in  the  form  of  electricity  and  heat  is  liberated  as  was 
required  to  be  expended  in  tearing  the  two  apart  in  the  process  of 
smelting.  For  rusting  to  take  place  it  is  necessary  to  have  another 
substance  which  is  electronegative  to  the  iron  to  be  in  contact 
with  it,  so  that  the  current  of  electricity  liberated  by  the  oxidation 
of  the  iron  passes  away  to  the  metal  or  other  material  which  acts 
as  the  electronegative  element.  In  this  way  the  iron  acts  as  one 
of  the  elements  of  a  voltaic  cell. 


ZINC.  141 

"  If  you  examine  a  piece  of  iron  which  has  become  corroded  by 
oxidation  you  will  observe  that  the  corrosion  has  taken  place  in 
small  holes  or  pits,  and  this  is  technically  known  as  'pitting.1 
These  are  produced  by  some  impurity  existing  in  the  iron,  which 
ultimately  forms  under  favorable  conditions  the  center  of  the  pit. 
This  may  be  a  piece  of  carbon,  a  minute  portion  or  speck  of 
manganese  or  other  substance,  which  is  electronegative  to  the 
iron,  which  latter  being  electropositive  becomes  oxidized.  It  is 
curious  that  when  rust  begins  to  form  on  iron  it  usually  attacks 
it  at  certain  minute  points  and  extends  like  spots  of  mould,  the 
oxide  of  iron  itself  acting  as  an  electronegative  element  to  the 
iron  upon  which  it  rests,  so  that  when  a  piece  of  iron  has  become 
rusty  it  is  very  difficult  after  cleaning  to  prevent  it  from  again 
becoming  rusty,  unless  every  particle  of  rust  can  be  most  carefully 
removed  from  it,  each  particle  forming  an  electronegative  element 
around  and  under  which  the  electropositive  iron  begins  to  oxidize 
and  produce  a  small  hole  or  pit." 

This  is  a  very  clear  exposition  of  the  galvanic  action  produced 
on  iron  by  other  elements. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 

TEMPORARY  hardness  is  that  due  to  calcium  and  magnesium 
carbonates  held  in  solution  by  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
water.  This  can  be  removed  by  boiling  when  the  carbon  dioxide 
is  driven  off  and  the  carbonates  are  precipitated. 

Permanent  hardness  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  magnesium 
chloride  or  calcium  sulphate,  the  latter  is  not  precipitated  by  boil- 
ing. 

STANDARDS  OF  HARDNESS. 

French Milligrams  of  calcium  carbonate  in  100  grams  of  water  or 

parts  per  100,000  of  water. 
German Milligrams  of  lime  in  100  grams  of  water  or  parts  per  100,CCO 

of  water. 
English Grains  of  calcium  carbonate  per  "imperial"  gallon  of  70,000 

grains. 
American Grains  of  calcium  carbonate  per  "U.  S."  gallon  of  58,381 

grains. 

HARDNESS. 

Method  of  Determination  of  Hardness. — 1.  By  Soap  (Clark's 
Method) . — When  potassium  or  sodium  soap  is  added  to  water  con- 
taining calcium  and  magnesium  salts  the  soap  is  decomposed  and 
insoluble  compounds  with  the  fatty  acids  are  produced. 

Upon  this  decomposition  of  soap  is  based  the  method  for  the 
determination  of  lt  lime  salts  "  which  was  perfected  and  patented 
by  Thomas  Clark  *  in  1841.  Variously  modified  by  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English  chemists,  the  principles  formulated  proved  of 

*  Clark's  Process,  Repertory  Patent  Inventions,  1841. 

142 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER.  143 

general  application.  He  employed  sixteen  standard  calcium-car- 
bonate solutions,  containing  from  one  to  sixteen  "  degrees  of  hard- 
ness," one  degree  meaning  one  grain  of  calcium  carbonate  to  the 
imperial  gallon.  The  soap  solution  was  prepared  by  dissolving  hard 
soap  in  proof  spirits  and  making  up  to  such  a  strength  that  100 
test  measures  of  the  standard  calcium-carbonate  solution  of  16 
degrees  of  hardness  should  take  32  test  measures  of  soap  solution, 
a  test  measure  being  T-jjVo-  Part  of  a  gallon. 

Hardness  may  be  temporary,  caused  by  the  presence  of  bicar- 
bonates  which  are  decomposed  by  boiling  heat,  with  the  liberation 
of  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic  acid),  or  permanent,  caused  by  com- 
pounds other  than  the  bicarbonates.  In  the  Clark  process  the 
total  hardness  is  determined  on  the  unboiled  water  and  the  per- 
manent on  the  boiled,  the  difference  being  the  temporary  hardness. 
The  total  hardness  only  is  given  in  the  results  tabulated  in  the 
State  Board  of  Health  Reports.* 

The  solutions  used  in  the  laboratory  for  water  analysis  are 
made  as  follows: 

A  standard  calcium-chloride  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  0.2 
gram  of  Iceland  spar  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  platinum  dish 
and  evaporating  to  dryness,  redissolving  in  a  small  amount  of 
water  and  again  evaporating  to  dryness.  This  is  repeated  several 
times,  until  all  the  free  acid  is  removed  and  a  perfectly  neutral 
salt  remains,  which  is  dissolved  in  water  and  made  up  to  one  liter. 
One  cubic  centimeter  then  contains  calcium-chloride  equivalent  to 
0.0002  gram  calcium  carbonate. 

For  the  preparation  of  the  standard  soap  solution  100  grams 
of  the  best  quality  of  dry  white  castile  soap  is  cut  into  thin  shav- 
ngs  dissolved  in  dilute  alcohol  (500  cubic  centimeters  96  per 
cent  alcohol  and  500  cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water)  and 
allowed  to  stand  overnight  to  settle;  100  cubic  centimeters  of  the 
clear  liquid  are  then  made  up  to  2  liters,  enough  alcohol  being 
used  to  keep  all  of  the  soap  in  solution.  50  cubic  centimeters  of 
the  standard  solution  of  calcium  chloride,  which,  according  to 
the  table,  should  take  exactly  14.25  cubic  centimeters  of  standard 
soap,  are  used  to  test  its  strength.  The  solution  thus  prepared 
does  not  change  perceptibly  if  air  has  no  access  to  it,  and  if  used 

*  Mass.  State.  Board  of  Health,  37th  Annual  Report. 


144  BOILER-WATERS. 

with  a  siphon  burette  attached  to  the  bottle  will  keep  for  five 
or  six  weeks  or  longer.  It  contains  5.2  grams  of  castile  soap  to 
the  liter. 

For  the  standardization  of  the  soap  and  for  the  determination 
of  the  ,hardness  of  any  water,  50  cubic  centimeters  of  the  water 
to  be  tested  or  of  the  standard  calcium-chloride  solution  are  placed 
in  a  flask  or  bottle  of  200  cubic  centimeters  capacity  and  of  a 
convenient  shape,  and  the  soap  solution  added,  two  or  three- 
tenths  of  a  cubic  centimeter  at  a  time,  shaking  well  after  each 
addition,  until  a  lather  is  obtained  which  is  permanent  for  five 
minutes  and  covers  the  entire  surface  of  the  liquid  with  the  bottle 
placed  on  its  side. 

The  table  opposite  gives  the  hardness  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  soap  solution  used  in  the 
analyses. 

The  importance  of  adding  the  soap  solution  in  small  quantities 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized,  especially  in  the  presence 
of  magnesium  compounds.  If  much  carbonic  acid  be  liberated, 
it  is  well  to  follow  the  original  directions  and  remove  it  by  suction. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  table  does  not  admit  of  the  determina- 
tion of  hardness  above  12.5  parts.  In  case  the  water  under  exam- 
ination requires  more  than  10  cubic  centimeters  of  the  standard 
soap  solution,  a  smaller  portion  of  25  cubic  centimeters,  10  cubic 
centimeters,  or  even  2  cubic  centimeters,  as  the  case  may  require, 
is  measured  out  and  made  up  to  a  volume  of  50  cubic  centimeters 
with  recently  distilled  water.  This  will  keep  the  results  compar- 
able with  each  other,  although  the  element  of  dilution  introduces 
a  slight  error  into  the  calculation. 

2.  By  Acid  (Hehner's  Method). — Attempts  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  calcium  and  magnesium  salts  by  means  of  standard 
acid  and  alkaline  solutions  instead  of  by  soap.  An  exhaustive 
study  of  the  relative  practical  value  of  one  of  these,  as  compared 
with  the  soap  method,  was  made  in  1890  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Eoard  of  Health.  A  condensed  summary  of 
the  results  is  given  on  pages  147  and  148. 

The  standard  solutions  used  are  sodium  carbonate,  1.06  grams 
to  the  liter,  1  cubic  centimeter  corresponding  to  0.0001  gram 
calcium  carbonate,  and  sulphuric  acid  of  such  a  strength  that  1 
cubic  centimeter  will  exactly  neutralize  1  cubic  centimeter  of 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 


145 


the  standard  sodium  carbonate  (0.98  gram  of  sulphuric  acid  to 
1  liter). 

TABLE  OF  HARDNESS  IN  PARTS  PER  100,000,  50  CUBIC  CENTIMETERS 
OF  WATER  USED. 


C.c.  of 

Soap 
Solu- 
tion. 

CaCO3 
per 
100,000. 

C.c.  of 

Soap 
Solu- 
tion. 

CaCO3 
per 
100,000. 

C.c.  of 
Soap 
Solu- 
tion. 

CaCO3 
100,000. 

C.c.  of 

Soap 
Solu- 
tion. 

CaCO3 
100,000. 

C.c.  of 
Soap 
Solu- 
tion. 

CaCO3 
100,000. 

.7 

.00 

3.8 

4.29 

6.9 

8.71 

10.0 

13.31 

13.1 

18.17 

.8 

.16 

.9 

.43 

7.0 

.86 

.1 

.46 

.2 

.33 

.9 

.32 

4.0 

.57 

.1 

9.00 

.2 

.61 

.3 

.49 

1.0 

.48 

.1 

.71 

.2 

.14 

.3 

.76 

.4 

.65 

.1 

.63 

.2 

.86 

.3 

.29 

.4 

.91 

.5 

.81 

.2 

.79 

.3 

5.  CO 

.4 

.43 

.5 

14.06 

.6 

.97 

.3 

.95 

.4 

.14 

.5 

.57 

.6 

.21 

.7 

19.13 

.4 

1.11 

.5 

.29 

.6 

.71 

.7 

.37 

.8 

.29 

.5 

.27 

.6 

.43 

.7 

.86 

.8 

.52 

.9 

.44 

.6 

.43 

.7 

.57 

.8 

10.00 

.9 

.68 

14.0 

.60 

.7 

.56 

.8 

.71 

.9 

.15 

11.0 

.84 

.1 

.76 

.8 

.69 

.9 

.86 

8.0 

.30 

.1 

15.00 

.2 

.92 

.9 

.82 

5.0 

6.00 

.1 

.45 

.2 

.16 

.3 

20.08 

2.0 

.95 

.1 

.14 

.2 

.60 

.3 

.32 

.4 

.24 

.1 

2.08 

.2 

.29 

.3 

.75 

.4 

.48 

.5 

.40 

.2 

.21 

.3 

.43 

.4 

.90 

.5 

.63 

.6 

.56 

.3 

.34 

.4 

.57 

.5 

11.05 

.6 

.79 

.7 

.71 

.4 

.47 

.5 

.71 

.6 

.20 

.7 

.95 

.8 

.87 

.5 

.CO 

.6 

.86 

.7 

.35 

.8 

16.11 

.9 

22.03 

.6 

.73 

.7 

7.00 

.8 

.50 

.9 

.27 

15.0 

.19 

.7 

.86 

.8 

.14 

.9 

.65 

12.0 

.43 

.1 

.35 

.8 

.99 

.9 

.29 

9.0 

.80 

.1 

.59 

.2 

.51 

.9 

3.12 

6.0 

.43 

.1 

.95 

.2 

.75 

.3 

.68 

3.0 

.25 

.1 

.57 

.2 

12.11 

.3 

.90 

.4 

.85 

.1 

.38 

.2 

.71 

.3 

.26 

.4 

17.06 

.5 

22.02 

.2 

.51 

.3 

.86 

.4 

.41 

.5 

.22 

.6 

.18 

.3 

.64 

.4 

8.00 

.5 

.56 

.6 

.38 

.7 

.35 

.4 

.77 

.5 

.14 

.6 

.71 

.7 

.54 

.8 

.52 

.5 

.90 

.6 

.29 

.7 

.86 

.8 

.70 

.9 

.69 

.6 

4.03 

.7 

.43 

.8 

13.01 

.9 

.86 

16.0 

.86 

.7 

.16 

.8 

.57 

.9 

.16 

13.0 

18.02 

Clark  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  term  "degree  of  hardness,"  and  in 
Table  No.  1  each  measure  of  soap  solution  =10  grains  and  each  degree  of 
hardness  =  1  grain  of  carbonate  of  lime  or  its  equivalent  of  another  calcium 
salt,  or  equivalent  quantities  of  magnesia  or  magnesium  salts  in  70,000  parts 
(  =  1  gallon  English). 

For  the  determination  of  the  temporary  hardness,  100  cubic 
centimeters  of  the  water  to  be  tested,  tinted  with  lacmoid,  which 
is  the  best  indicator  to  use  with  surface  waters,  are  heated  in  a 
porcelain  dish  nearly  to  boiling  and  the  standard  acid  added  to  a 


146  BOILER-WATERS. 

neutral  reaction.  Each  cubic  centimeter  of  acid  corresponds  to 
one  part  of  calcium  carbonate  per  100,000. 

For  the  permanent  hardness  another  100  cubic  centimeters 
of  water  are  taken  and  enough  of  the  standard  sodium-carbonate 
solution  added  to  more  than  decompose  the  salts  of  calcium  and 
magnesium  and  the  whole  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  platinum 
or  nickel  dish.  (Glass  and  porcelain  cannot  be  used,  as  too  large 
an  error  is  introduced  from  the  alkali  dissolved  from  these  sub- 
stances.) The  residue  is  first  treated  with  boiling  distilled  water 
which  has  been  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  to  remove  any  carbonic 
acid,  then  filtered  through  a  small  filter,  which  must  be  well 
washed,  the  filtrate  tinted  with  lacmoid,  and  the  excess  of  free 
alkali  determined  by  the  standard  acid.* 

The  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  sodium  carbonate  used,  less 
the  acid  used  for  neutralization,  gives  the  permanent,  and  the 
sum  of  the  two  gives  the  total,  hardness. 

With  alkaline  waters,  with  sewage,  and  with  some  sewage 
effluents  a  correct  on  must  be  made  for  the  excess  of  alkaline 
carbonates;  but  in  these  cases  the  results  after  correction  do  not 
compare  as  closely  with  the  soap  method  as  do  those  obtained 
with  the  natural  waters. 

The  results  given  in  the  table  opposite  were  obtained  by  the  two 
methods,  which  were  tried  on  a  number  of  ground-  and  surface- 
waters  and  several  samples  of  sewage,  in  every  case  the  total 
hardness  being  given. 

*  Analyst,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  77,  1883. 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 


147 


SURFACE-WATERS. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 
(Report  Mass.  St.  Board  of  Health.) 


Place  of  Collection. 

Total 
Hardness 
by  Soap. 

Total 
Hardness 
by  Acid. 

Fitchburg  Overlook  Reservoir 

0   48 

0   70 

Springfield,  Ludlow  Reservoir,  6  feet  beneath  the  surface. 
"                 "              "          at  surface,,  .  .            

0.79 
0  79 

1.11 
1   00 

Quincy    reservoir         .           

0.79 

0  80 

Lawrence   Merrimac  River  

0  80 

1  11 

Brockton   reservoir.          ,  

0.90 

0  80 

Quincy   inlet  to  reservoir     ,  

0.95 

0  70 

Worcester,  Holden  Reservoir  

0.95 

1.10 

Millville   Blackstone  River 

1  10 

1  50 

Boston  Water-works,  Basin  4,  20  feet  beneath  the  surface 
«                 n                 a      4     4  n          it         it        a 

Lawrence   Merrimac  River                          

1.11 
1.27 
1  30 

1.11 

1.00 
1  60 

Boston  Water-works,  Cold  Spring  Brook,  at  head  of  Reser- 
voir No  4                     .                  

1  43 

1  40 

Boston  Water-works,  R,eservoir  No  2.  ,  

1  46 

1  45 

"                 "              Sudbury  River,  at  head  of  Reser- 
voir No  2           

1  56 

1  30 

Boston  Water-works   Reservoir  No  4,  near  bottom 

1  56 

1  55 

"                "                   "           "    3                      . 

1  80 

1  90 

Framingham   farm  pond                                  .        .... 

1  95 

1  90 

Marlborough                                                     .          .... 

2  30 

2  00 

Boston  Water-works,  Stony  Brook,  at  head  of  Reservoir 
No   3                                        

2  34 

2  35 

Winchester    reservoir        

2  60 

2  70 

\Vorcester   Blackstone  River 

2  86 

2  90 

Poughkeepsie   inlet  of  filter-basin 

4  00 

4  00 

11                "     "  east  filter-bed 

4  00 

4  00 

"                et     "  west          " 

4  00 

4  00 

'  '              Hudson  River 

4  57 

4  50 

The  following  two  methods  were  then  tried  upon  three  sampl< 
of  sewage,  the  results  of  which  show  wide  differences: 


Place  of 
Collection. 

Total 
Hardness 
by  Soap. 

Total 
Hardness 
by  Acid. 

No   1  . 

4   20 

5  80 

"    2  

3   90 

7  20 

"3        

3  60 

5  60 

The  above  three  samples  were  strongly  alkaline,  in  every  case 
the  acid  method  giving  the  higher  results. 


148 


BOILER-WATERS. 
GROUND- WATERS. 


Place  of  Collection. 

H  ardness 
by  Soap. 

Hardness 
by  Acid. 

Place  of  Collection. 

iardness 
by  Soap. 

I  ardness 
3y  Acid. 

Whitman,  well    .... 

1  80 

1.70 

Woburn,  well 

4   90 

4   40 

Whately,  well  
South  Deerfield,  well. 

Melrose,  well  

it           1  1 

2.08 
2.21 
2.30 
2  50 

2.00 
1.95 
2.40 
3  20 

Winchester,  well.  .  .  . 
Hatfield,  well  

South  Leerfaeld,  well. 

tt            <  i           <  i 

5.10 
5.14 
5.71 
5  71 

6.80 
4.70 
5.40 
K  40 

Greenfield,  well  

2.73 

2.20 

Hatfield,  well  

6  00 

6  30 

Melrose,  well  

2.90 

3.50 

\\  illiamsburg,  well. 

6  29 

8  80 

Framingham,  filter- 
basin 

3  10 

3  10 

\\inter  Hill,  well.  .  . 
Maiden,  well 

7.  CO 
7  10 

7.70 

7  30 

Orange  well 

3  40 

3  40 

South  Framingham 

Melrose  well 

3  50 

4  70 

underdrain 

7  70 

7  70 

Reading  well 

3  60 

4  90 

Maiden,  well 

7  90 

8  80 

Maiden  well 

3  60 

5  60 

Reading,  well 

10  00 

10  10 

Cambridge,  well.  .  .  . 

Boston,  well  
Williamsburg,  well.  . 
Reading  well 

4.20 
4.40 
4.40 
4.57 
4  60 

5.80 
4.90 
4.90 
4.20 
4.50 

Framingham,  well.  . 
Reading,  well  
Amherst,  well  .... 
Williamstown,  spring 
Chelsea,  well  

10.10 
11.50 
12.56 
34.40 
17.30 

9.80 
10.50 
12.30 
30.35 
17  10 

Sauffus  well 

4  70 

6  30 

t  (           « 

17  50 

17  40 

Amherst,  well   

4.71 

4.45 

Williamstown,  well. 

34.40 

30.35 

Hard  water  can  always  be  told  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in 
making  lather  with  soap  in  it.  The  following  table  gives  the 
amount  of  soap  required  to  produce  a  permanent  lather  in  waters 
of  varying  degrees  of  hardness: 


Degrees, 
Hardness. 

Pounds  Soap 
Destroyed  per 
1000  Gallons 
of  Water. 

Cost  of  Soap 
at  5  Cents 
per  Pound. 

5 

8.5 

$0.41 

10 

17.0 

0.82 

15 

25.5 

1.23 

20 

34.0 

1.64 

25 

42.5 

2.05 

Coagulation  by  means  of  alum  in  mechanical  nitration  causes 
some  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  change  to  sulphate  of  lime,  setting 
free  carbonic  acid,  which  causes  corrosion  of  the  metal  of  boilers, 
though  it  can  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  a  good  protective  coating 
on  the  metal.  The  sulphate  of  lime  in  steam-boilers  results  in  a 
scale  which  attaches  itself  much  more  firmly  to  the  boiler  surfaces 
than  the  carbonate  does. 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 


149 


Raw  River- 
water. 

Filtered 
Water. 

Temporary  hardness  (al- 
kalinity)            

23 

15 

Permanent  hardness  (in- 
crusting  properties).  .  . 

Total  hardness  

12 
35 

19 
34 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  filtration,  the  object  of 
which  is  pure  drinking-water,  adds  seven  points  to  the  incrusting 
properties  in  the  water,  and  from  other  sources  we  learn  that 
96.5  to  99.1  per  cent  of  the  bacteria  are  removed  by  the  same 
process. 

Naturally  we  would  expect  more  scale  and  corrosion  in  the 
boilers  of  steam-plants  in  towns  using  alum  in  purifying  water. 

A  water  of  which  the  hardness  is  entirely  "  temporary,"  that 
is  due  to  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia,  can 
be  softened  with  lime  alone,  which  costs,  say,  $5  per  ton  or  less; 
but  "permanent  "  hardness,  due  to  sulphate  of  lime,  can  be  removed 
only  by  using  alkali,  costing  at  present  prices  (in  1898)  $25 
per  ton.  Less  than  one  pound  of  lime  per  1000  gallons  of  water 
will  remove  10  degrees  of  temporary  hardness,  but  1.6  pounds  of 
alkali  is  required  for  the  removal  of  10  degrees  of  permanent 
hardness  due  to  sulphate  of  lime,  while  sulphate  of  magnesia  is 
still  more  expensive  to  remove. 

Taking  quicklime  at  $5  a  ton  and  alkali  at  $25  per  ton,  the 
cost  *  of  chemicals  for  softening  water  is  about  as  follows  per 
thousand  gallons: 

For  every  10  degrees  of  temporary  hardness 0.22  cents 

"       "      10  degrees  "  permanent        "       1.90     " 

Thus  permanent  hardness  is  about  nine  times  as  expensive  to 
remove  as  temporary  hardness. 

Sulphates. — A  quick  method  for  determining  the  sulphates  in 
water,  with  sufficient  exactness  for  boiler  purposes,  is  one  making 
use  of  the  Jackson  f  candle  turbidimeter. 


*  Leonard  and  Archbutt,  Inst.  Mech.  Engrs.,  1898. 

t  D.  D.  Jackson,  Dir.  Mt.  Prospect  Laboratory,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


150 


BOILER-WATERS. 


The  original  form  of  the  instrument  was  first  described  by 
its  inventor  in  the  Journal  of  the  Amer.  Chem.  Soc.,  Nov.,  1901 
but  since  that  time  it  has  been  considerably  improved  upon. 

The  accompanying  illustration  gives 
a  good  idea  of  the  present  form  of 
the  instrument  and  its  use.  The  ap- 
paratus consists  of  a  glass  tube  closed 
at  the  bottom  and  graduated  in  centi- 
meters and  millimeters  depth.  This 
is  surrounded  by  a  brass  holder  open 
at  the  bottom  and  supported  by  a 
stand  in  the  center  of  which  is  a 
standard  English  candle  so  adjusted 
that  its  top  rim  is  just  3  inches  below 
the  bottom  of  the  glass  tube. 

This  instrument  is  very  convenient 
for  use  in  the  laboratory,  and  as  its 
source  of  light  is  the  standard  candle, 
it  is  ready  at  all  times. 

Read  the  depth  of  the  liquid  (using 
the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  in  reading). 
Refer  this  reading  to  the  table  opposite 
to  obtain  the  parts  per  million  or 
grains  per  gallon. 

A  convenient  form  of  tube  is  a 
Nessler  jar  2.5  cm.  in  diameter  and 
17  cm.  to  the  100-c.c.  mark.  The 
brass  holder  for  this  tube  is  open  at 
the  bottom  so  that  the  glass  tube 
rests  on  a  narrow  ring  at  this  point. 
The  candle  below  is  so  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  spring  that  the  top  edge  is 
always  just  3  inches  below  the  bottom 
of  the  glass  tube.  The  illustration 
shows  the  candle  with  the  regulator 
cap  removed  so  as  to  better  represent 
the  process.  The  English  standard  candle  is  preferred,  but  a, 
common  candle  of  the  same  size  may  be  used.  This  candle  must 
always  be  properly  trimmed  and  the  determination  must  be  made 


FIG.  28a. — Jackson  Turbid- 
imeter. 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 


151 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  READINGS  IN  DEPTHS  BY  THE  TURBID- 
IMETER  INTO  PARTS  PER  MILLION  OR  GRAINS  PER  GALLON 
OF  SULPHATE.  (JACKSON.) 


Reading 
in  Centi- 
meters. 

Parts 
per 
Million 
(S08). 

Grains 

upeL 

Gallon 
(S03). 

Reading 
in  Centi- 
meters. 

Parts 
per 
Million 
(S03). 

Grains 

iTI. 

Gallon 
(S03). 

Reading 
in  Centi- 
meters. 

Parts 
per 
Million 
(SO3). 

Grains 
per 

U.S. 
Gallon 
(S03). 

.0 

520 

30.5 

5.4 

104 

6.1 

10.8 

53 

3.1 

.1 

480 

28.0 

5.5 

103 

6.0 

11.0 

52 

3.1 

.2 

440 

25.5 

5.6 

101 

5.9 

11.2 

51 

3.0 

.3 

410 

24.0 

5.7 

99 

5.8 

11.4 

50 

3.0 

.4 

385 

22.5 

5.8 

97 

5.7 

11.6 

49 

2.9 

.5 

360 

21.0 

5.9 

96 

5.6 

11.8 

48 

2.8 

.6 

340 

20.0 

6.0 

94 

5.5 

12.0 

47 

2.7 

.7 

320 

18.5 

6.1 

93 

5.4 

12.4 

46 

2.7 

.8 

300 

17.5 

6.2 

91 

5.3 

12.6 

45 

2.6 

.9 

285 

16.5 

6.3 

90 

5.2 

12.8 

44 

2.6 

2.0 

275 

16.0 

6.4 

88 

5.1 

13.0 

43 

2.5 

2.1 

260 

15.0 

6.5 

87 

5.1 

13.5 

42 

2.5 

2.2 

250 

14.5 

6.6 

86 

5.0 

14.0 

41 

2.4 

2.3 

240 

14.0 

6.7 

84 

4.9 

14.5 

39 

2.3 

2.4 

230 

13.5 

6.8 

83 

4.9 

15.0 

38 

2.3 

2.5 

220 

13.0 

6.9 

82 

4.8 

15.5 

37 

2.2 

2.6 

215 

12.5 

7.0 

81 

4.8 

16.0 

36 

2.1 

2.7 

205 

12.0 

7.1 

80 

4.7 

16.5 

35 

2.0 

2.8 

200 

11.7 

7.2 

79 

4.7 

17.0 

34 

2.0 

2.9 

190 

11.1 

7.3 

78 

4.6 

17.5 

33 

1.9 

3.0 

185 

10.8 

7.4 

77 

4.5 

18.0 

32 

.9 

3.1 

180 

10.5 

7.5 

76 

4.4 

18.5 

31 

.8 

3.2 

175 

10.2 

7.6 

75 

4.4 

19.0 

30 

.8 

3.3 

170 

9.9 

7.7 

74 

4.3 

20.0 

29 

.7 

3.4 

165 

9.6 

7.8 

73 

4.3 

21.0 

28 

.7 

3.5 

160 

9.4 

7.9 

72 

4.2 

22.0 

27 

.6 

3.6 

155 

9.1 

8.0 

71 

4.2 

22.5 

26 

.6 

3.7 

150 

8.8 

8.1 

70 

4.1 

23.0 

25 

.5 

3.8 

147 

8.6 

8.2 

69 

4.0 

24.0 

24 

.4 

3.9 

144 

8.4 

8.3 

68 

4.0 

25.0 

23 

.3 

4.0 

140 

8.2 

8.5 

67 

3.9 

26.5 

22 

.3 

4.1 

137 

8.0 

8.6 

66 

3.9 

28.0 

21 

.2 

4.2 

133 

7.8 

8.7 

65 

3.8 

29.0 

20 

.2 

4.3 

131 

7.7 

8.8 

64 

3.8 

31.0 

19 

.1 

4.4 

128 

7.5 

9.0 

63 

3.7 

33.0 

18 

.1 

4.5 

125 

7.3 

9.1 

62 

3.7 

35.0 

17 

.0 

4.6 

122 

7.1 

9.3 

61 

3.6 

37.5 

16 

.0 

4.7 

119 

7.0 

9.5 

60 

3.6 

40.0 

15 

0.9 

4.9 

117 

6.8 

9.7 

59 

3.5 

43.0 

14 

0.9 

4.9 

115 

6.7 

9.8 

58 

3.4 

46.5 

13 

0.8 

5.0 

113 

6.6 

10.0 

57 

3.3 

50.0 

12 

0.7 

5.1 

110 

6.4 

10.2 

56 

3.3 

55.5 

11 

0.6 

5.2 

108 

6.3 

10.4 

55 

3.2 

62.0 

10 

0.6 

5.3 

106 

6.2 

10.6 

54 

3.2 

68.0 

9 

0.5 

152  BOILER-WATERS. 

rapidly  so  as  not  to  heat  the  liquid  to  any  extent.  The  most 
accurate  work  is  obtained  in  the  dark-room,  and  the  candle  should 
be  so  placed  as  not  to  be  subjected  to  a  draft  of  air.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  bottom  of  the  tube  clean  both  inside  and 
out  so  as  not  to  cut  out  any  of  the  light. 

Mr.  Jackson  gives  this  method  for  the  determination  of  sul- 
phates. 

It  has  been  found  that  by  means  of  this  instrument  other 
determinations  than  turbidity  may  be  made.  If  the  water  is 
clear  or  is  clarified  by  a  filter,  a  determination  of  the  sulphate 
present  in  the  water  may  be  obtained. 


DETERMINATION   OF   SULPHATE   IN  WATER  BY  MEANS   OF  THE 

TURBIDIMETER. 

The  amount  of  sulphate  in  natural  waters  is  important  on 
account  of  the  scale-forming  action  of  sulphate  of  lime  in  waters 
used  for  boiler  purposes.  If  the  amount  of  sulphate  is  con- 
siderable the  determination  may  be  made  by  the  turbidimeter 
with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  The  method  is  as  follows: 

To  100  c.c.  of  the  water  to  be  tested  add  1  c.c.  of  hydrochloric 
acid  (1-1)  and  1  gram  of  solid  barium  chloride  crystals.  If  the 
amount  of  sulphate  is  low  200  or  300  c.c.  of  water  must  be  treated 
in  order  to  fill  the  longer  tube  employed.  In  this  case  add  1  c.c. 
of  acid  and  1  gram  of  barium  chloride  for  each  100  c.c.  of  water 
taken. 

Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  ten  minutes  with  frequent 
shaking.  The  shaking  is  best  accomplished  if  the  water  is  treated 
in  a  bottle.  The  barium  sulphate  will  be  precipitated  in  a  finely 
divided  state  and  the  turbidity  produced  is  then  read  by  pour- 
ing the  milky  solution  into  the  glass  tube  and  noting  the  point 
at  which  the  image  of  the  candle  disappears. 

The  determinations  as  made  by  this  method  are  extremely 
rough  and  are  mainly  used  for  approximate  figures,  obtained 
quickly,  and  with  little  labor. 

Calcium. — To  determine  the  calcium,  the  water  is  rendered 
slightly  ammoniacal  and  a  small  quantity  of  ammonium  oxalate 
crystals  is  added. 


HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 


153 


When  the  calcium  oxalate  is  precipitated,  and  the  turbidimeter 
as  above  is  used,  the  equivalent  calcium  may  be  found  by  refer- 
ence to  this  table. 

TABLE  FOR  ESTIMATION    OF  CALCIUM  IN  WATER  IN  PARTS  PER 
MILLION  WITH  JACKSON  TURBIDIMETER. 


Depth. 

Calcium 
Equiva- 
lent. 

Depth. 

Calcium 
Equiva- 
lent. 

Depth. 

Calcium 
Equiva- 
lent. 

Depth. 

Calcium 
Equiva- 
lent. 

.0 

1150 

4.1 

162 

7.2 

77 

10.6 

50 

.1 

1000 

4.2 

156 

7.3 

76 

10.8 

49 

.2 

890 

4.3 

151 

7.4 

74 

11.0 

48 

.3 

795 

4.4 

146 

7.5 

73 

11.2 

47 

.4 

715 

4.5 

142 

7.6 

72 

11.4 

46 

.5 

650 

4.6 

137 

7.7 

71 

11.7 

45 

1.6 

595 

4.7 

133 

7.8 

70 

11.9 

44 

1.7 

550 

4.8 

130 

7.9 

69 

12.2 

43 

1.8 

505 

4.9 

126 

8.0 

68 

12.4 

42 

1.9 

470 

5.0 

123 

8.1 

67 

12.7 

41 

2.0 

435 

5.1 

119 

8.2 

66 

13.0 

40 

2.1 

410 

5.2 

116 

8.3 

65 

13.3 

39 

2.2 

380 

5.3 

113 

8.4 

64 

13.7 

38 

2.3 

360 

5.4 

110 

8.5 

64 

14.0 

37 

2.4 

340 

5.5 

107 

8.6 

63 

14.4 

36 

2.5 

320 

5.6 

105 

8.7 

62 

14.8 

35 

2.6 

305 

5.7 

102 

8.8 

61 

15.3 

34 

2.7 

288 

5.8 

100 

8.9 

60 

15.7 

33 

2.8 

274 

5.9 

98 

9.0 

60 

16.2 

32 

2.9 

261 

6.0 

96 

9.1 

59 

16.7 

31 

3.0 

248 

6.1. 

94 

9.2 

58 

17.3 

30 

3.1 

238 

6.2 

92 

9.3 

57 

17.9 

29 

3.2 

228 

6.3 

90 

9.4 

57 

18.5 

28 

3.3 

218 

6.4 

88 

9.5 

56 

19.2 

27 

3.4 

209 

6.5 

87 

9.6 

55 

20.0 

26 

3.5 

200 

6.6 

85 

9.7 

55 

20.8 

25 

3.6 

194 

6.7 

84 

9.8 

54 

21.7 

24 

3.7 

186 

6.8    . 

82 

9.9 

54 

22.7 

23 

3.8 

179 

6.9 

81 

10.0 

53 

23.8 

22 

3.9 

173 

7.0 

80 

10.2 

52 

24.0 

21 

4.0 

167 

7.1 

78 

10.4 

51 

25.2 

20 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
FEED-WATER  HEATERS.* 

THE  time  to  purify  all  boiler  feed-water  is  before  it  ever  gets 
to  the  boiler,  never  in  the  boiler.  It  is  very  much  more  desirable 
that  one  has  a  lot  of  trouble  keeping  feed-water  heaters  and 
purifiers  clean  than  to  have  the  stuff  get  in  the  boiler. 

A  new  "tray"  heater  was  put  in  a  Pennsylvania  power-plant 
not  so  long  ago,  and  when  the  steam-engineer  was  asked  how 
it  suited  him  he  said  that  there  was  entirely  too  much  "  stuff  "  on 
the  trays;  in  fact,  it  necessitated  his  cleaning  them  every  day, 
which  was  not  the  condition  of  things  with  his  old  heater. 

Here  was  an  absolute  lack  of  recognition  of  the  great  benefit 
to  the  boiler,  in  that  purer  water  would  give  the  boiler  a  longer 
life  and  a  higher  rate  of  evaporation,  less  liability  to  explosion, 
and  altogether  resulting  in  a  much  more  economical  steam-plant 
and  a  much  less  expense  account. 

When  we  were  considering  the  treatment  of  water  chemically, 
we  had  in  mind  only  that  one  general  method  of  preparation  and 
purification. 

Boiler  feed-water  is  derived  from  two  general  sources,  namely: 

a.  New  water  supplie  . 

b.  Condensed  steam. 

The  first,  a,  may  be  treated  or  untreated  water,  and  be  simply 
passed  through  a  tubular-feed  heater,  where  certain  impurities 
insoluble  at,  say,  210°  F.,  will  eeparate  out  and  settle  to  the  mud- 
drum  of  the  heater,  leaving:  the  other  substances  in  solution, 
which  are  still  more  harmful  to  the  boiler. 

*  A  considerable  portion  of  this  chapter  appeared  originally  as  an  article 
on  "  Feed-water  Heaters  "  in  Gassier' s  Magazine  in  1903. 

154 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS.  155 

The  second,  6,  is  that  derived  from  condensed  steam  of  any 
kind,  as  from  drips  or  water  from  a  surface-condenser. 


FIG.  29. — Wainwright  Surface-condenser. 

This  water  may  be  passed  through  a  feed-heater  and  purifier 
on  its  way  to  the  boiler,  where  there  is  any  likelihood  of  the  presence 
of  oil  in  the  condensed  water  it  should  be  passed  through  an  oil- 
separator  or  filter — this  also  applies  to  condensed  steam  from 
engines  which  may  or  may  not  have  been  through  a  tubular  feaa- 
heater. 

FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 
The  writer  would  classify  feed-water  heaters  thus: 

/  Steam-tube. 

Closed  heaters  (indirect) \  ,TT  , 

I  Water-tube. 

, ,.      ,N  /  Atmospheric. 

Open  heaters  (direct) *\  „. 

( Vacuum. 

Flue-gas  heaters Economizers. 

Closed  heaters  are  those  in  which  the  steam  to  be  utilized  is 
separated  from  the  water  by  a  metal  wall,  usually  copper  or  brass, 
as  pipes,  which  material  is  the  most  desirable.  This  type  of 
heater  is  used  where  the  water  is  least  contaminated,  and  is  con- 
sidered  a  good  feed-water. 


156  BOILER-WATERS. 

The  efficiency  of  these  heaters  is  a  direct  function  of  the  ability 
of  the  metal  walls  to  transmit  the  heat  from  the  steam  to  the 
water  and  the  amount  of  circulation  or  breaking  up  which  the 
water  receives  in  passing  through  the  heater.  In  cases  where 
the  steam  used  is  exhaust  from  the  engine,  and  at  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  highest  temperature  it  is  possible  to  give  the  feed- 
water  is  210°  to  212°  F. 

Sheet-iron  or  steel  shells  are  used  for  the  steam-tube  heaters, 
with  water  going  through  the  shell  under  boiler  pressure;  cast 
iron  is  used  for  the  shells  of  water-tube  heaters,  as  it  is  less  liable 
to  galvanic  action  and  pitting  from  grease  and  action  of  water 
and  steam  in  the  shell. 

/  The  water-tube  type  of  the  closed  heater  is  one  which  gives  the 
same  heating-surface  in  less  .space  than  is  possible  in  the  steam- 
tube  type. 

In  the  closed  heaters  as  above  the  steam  condensing  in  them 
is  a  total  waste  as  boiler-feed,  or  when  clean  hot  water  can  be 
utilized,  unless  it  is  passed  through  a  filter  which  will  remove  the 
oil  and  other  matters  in  suspension. 

Open  heaters  are  those  into  which  the  steam  is  exhausted  in 
direct  contact  with  and  intermingling  with  the  water. 

They  are  especially  useful  where  the  water  is  full  of  lime  and 
other  scale-forming  elements;  they  are  fully  equipped  with  devices 
for  aiding  the  precipitation  of  the  salts,  and  separating  and  filter- 
ing out  the  oil,  delivering  a  pure  boiler  feed- water. 

This  type  of  heater  may  be  so  controlled  in  its  action  as  to  have 
the  water  take  up  all  the  heat  in  all  the  steam,  and  may  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  water  to  slightly  beyond  212°  F. 

Two  things  are  very  essential  to  the  successful  working  of  all 
heaters:  they  must  be  kept  clean  and  sufficient  exhaust  steam  be 
sent  to  them  to  furnish  the  necessary  heat  or  the  water  regulated 
so  as  not  to  lower  the  temperature  in  the  heater  below  212°  F. 

Of  the  many  heaters  on  the  rrarket  a  few  representative  de- 
signs are  shown  and  their  features  described. 

The  Patterson-Berryman  water-tube  heater,  Fig.  30,  is  of  the 
pressure  type,  and  consists  of  an  iron  shell  and  setting-chamber 
with  U-shaped  brass  tubes  expanded  in  a  heavy  cast-iron  tube- 
head.  In  this  type  the  water  passes  in  and  through  a  nest  of  tubes, 
and  then,  owing  to  partitions  set  in  the  settling-chamber,  clearly 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


157 


seen  in  the  sketch,  the  water  passes  through  another  nest  of  tubes 
and  finally  out   to  the  boiler.     The   steam  is  exhausted  into  the 


FIG    30. — Sectional  View  of  the  Patterson-Berryman  Heater. 

steel  and  outside  of  the  nests  of  tubes,  and  usually  the  steam  passes 
out  at  the  top  to  the  atmosphere  or  elsewhere  as  desired. 

i/The  Goubert  heater,  Figs.  31  and  32,  is  another  of  the  pressure 
type  which  has  had  a  large  field  of  usefulness.     The  water  in  en- 


158 


BOILER-WATERS. 


tering  the  heater  passes  through  a  sleeve  against  a  saucer-like 
deflector,  then  down  into  a  mud-drum,  and  finally  up  through  the 
tubes,  each  tube-end  being  expanded  into  curved  or  dished  flue- 


Differential  Expansion 

ween  Tube  and  Shell 

i/16  of  an  inch  in  10  feet 


Enlarged  View  of. 
Expansion  Joint 


FIG.  31.  —Section  of  the 
Goubert  Heater. 


FIG.  32.— Elevation  of  a  Goubert  Heater 
and  Connections. 


heads.  The  upper  water-chamber  is  an  invert  of  the  lower  one. 
A  feature  of  this  heater  is  a  flexible  joint  between  the  outer  shell 
and  inner  tubes  and  their  bonnet  at  the  top.  This  joint  is  made 
up  of  a  loose  flange,  three  gaskets,  one  of  soft  annealed  copper  and 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


159 


two  of  special  packing  with  wire  cloth  impeded  in  them,  and  the 
flange  which  is  a  part  of  the  cast-iron  body  of  the  heater. 

The  Wainright  heater,  Fig.  33,  is  of  the  closed  type,  and  is  made 


(The  Taunton  Locomotive  Co.,  Makers.") 

FIG.  33.— The  Wainwright  Heater. 

with  steam-tubes  or  water-tubes,  and  is  built  either  vertical  or 
horizontal,  a  remark  applying  to  practically  all  closed  heaters. 
The  special  feature  of  this  heater  is  the  tubes,  which  are  of  brass 


160 


BOILER-WATERS. 


and  corrugated,  and  also  in  the  use  of  a  long  shell  or  body  of  com- 
paratively small  diameter  rather  than  a  short  shell  of  large  diam- 
eter. 

The  water-spaces  are  so  designed  that  they  may  give  an  even 
flow  at  a  rapid  rate  of  travel,  which  aids  materially  a  high  rate  of 
convection  of  heat  through  the  tubes  to  the  water. 

Tests  made  of  heaters  having  different  types  of  tubes  tend  to 
show  that  if  water  is  broken  up  and  travels  at  a  rapid  rate  of  speed 
it  will  take  the  greatest  number  of  heat-units  from  the  steam  per 
unit  of  time.  The  cold  core  or  zone  in  a  body  of  water  passing 
through  a  straight  tube  having  parallel  sides  is  found  by  experi- 
ment to  give  way  to  a  more  evenly  heated  body  of  water  in  the 


FIG.  34.— Section  of  Tube-plate,  Bottom  of  Da  vis -Berry  man  Heater. 

corrugated  tube,  because  of  the  more  thorough  mixing  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  the  corrugations  on  the  tube. 

In  the  Davis-Berryman  heater  the  body  is  made  of  "shell  steel  " 
and  the  head  of  "flange  steel."  The  tubes,  tested  to  500  pounds 
per  square  inch,  are  bent  fl  shape  and  expanded  into  a  cast-iron 
tube-head. 

This  head  is  conical,  as  shown  by  Fig.  34,  aiding  the  sediment 
to  pass  immediately  to  the  discharge  mud-blowpipe  outlet. 

This  is  the  steam-tube  type,  with  the  water-inlet  high  enough 
at  the  side  not  to  disturb  the  sediment,  and  the  water-outlet  is 
at  the  proper  distance  below  the  top  level  of  the  water  to  prevent 
the  scum  going  over  with  the  water.  A  valve  is  provided  for  the 
removal  of  scum. 

One  of  the  many  forms  of  Baragwanath  heaters  is  known  as  a 
steam-jacket  heater. 


FEED-WATER   HEATERS. 


161 


The  tubes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35,  are  expanded  into  tube-sheets 
at  top  and  bottom.  The  exhaust  steam  enters  at  the  bottom, 
passes  up  through  the  tubes  and  returns  on  the  outside  of  the 
inner  shell,  the  water  being  between  the  pipes  and  the  inner  shell. 


FIG.  35. — Baragwanath  Steam-jacket  Heater. 

The  water-inlet  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell  and  the  outlet  at 
the  top.  The  same  makers  build  a  horizontal  open  heater  with  a 
screen  for  separation  of  oil  and  trays  for  sedimentation. 

In  the  Wheeler  heater,  Fig.  36,  there  are  tube-heads  at  both 
ends;  the  tubes  are  enlarged  at  one  end  and  made  fast  by  a  screw 


162 


BOILER-WATERS. 


end.  The  other  end  is  made  fast  by  a  brass  outer  ferrule  and  as- 
bestos packing,  which  go  in  a  special  pocket  formed  in  the  tube- 
head  for  the  purpose. 

The  tubes  are  free  to  expand  or  contract  as  the  ferrule  is  not 


FIG.  36. — Heater  made  by  the  Wheeler  Condenser  and  Engineering  Co. 

rigidly  attached  to  the  tube.  These  heaters  are  also  made  at 
both  ends  of  the  tubes  with  ferrule  and  asbestos  packing. 

The  quality  of  the  tubes  is  the  best  seamless  brass,  tinned  and 
tested  to  700  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch. 

The  same  company  make  a  double-tube  horizontal  heater  for 
marine  service.  The  exhaust  steam  in  this  type  passes  through 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


163 


the  inner  tubes,  then  returns  through  the  annu- 
lar space  between  them  and  the  larger  tubes,  and 
then  is  exhausted. 

The  feed-water  enters  the  shell  at  the  bot- 
tom and  travels  between  and  about  the  exterior 
cf  the  tubes  and  then  out  at  the  top  and  to  the 
boilers. 

One  of  the  early  designs  of  feed-water  heaters 
s  of  the  coil  type.  This  was  developed  in  Great 
Britain,  and  is  virtually  an  enlarged  exhaust 
pipe;  in  fact,  it  is  a  portion  of  the  length  of 
the  exhaust  pipe,  from  the  top  of  which  cast- 
iron  body  drops  a  perpendicular  feed-water  pipe 
having  a  copper-coil  pipe  winding  upward  from 
its  lower  end  and  out  through  the  top  head,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  37. 

If  the  feed-water  is  pure  this  would  prove 
a  very  desirable  heater,  as  its  principle  of  long 
travel  of  water  in  ample  steam-space  is  good. 

The  American  development  of  this  heater  is 
shown  in  another  line  of  water-tube  heaters,  con- 
sisting of  copper  or  brass  coils  bent  spirally  and  FIG  37.  —  Copper- 

/  coil    Heater     by 

set  inside  a  riveted-steel,  cast-iron,  or  steel  shell.      Yates  and  Thorn, 

The  Whitlock,  Fig.  38,  is  so  built   and  con-      England. 

Engine  Room  Level 
xFrom  Main  Engine 


(Whitlock  Coil  Pipe  Co.) 

FIG.  38. — Arrangement  of  Primary  and  Auxiliary  Heaters. 


164 


BOILER-WATERS. 


sists  of  a  steel-shell  body,  riveted  to  cast-iron  flanges  top  and  bot- 
tom to  which  the  heads  are  bolted.  Inside  of  this  heater,  all  of 
whose  shell- joints  are  brazed,  are  copper  coils,  tested  before  use  to 
600  pounds  per  square  inch. 


FIG.  39. — Pipe-coil  Heater  by  Harrisburg  Pipe  Bending  Co. 
In  the  Harrisburg  heaters,  Fig.  39,  the  connection  of  water-pipe 
to  coils  is   accomplished  by  using  a  special  fitting,  to  which  the 
coils  of  three  or  less  pipes  are  connected  top  and  bottom  inside  the 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


165 


shell,  and  by  means  of  flanges  and  threaded  ends  outside  the  shell. 

Another  type  of  closed-pressure  heater  is  the  "  Mul to-Current " 
feed-water  heater,  designed  by  the  Blake  and  Knowles  Steam  Pump 
Co.  In  this  heater  the  ends  of  the  tubes  are  firmly  expanded  and 
secured  in  the  two  heads,  one  of  which  is  rigid  and  part  of  the 
main-shell  casting.  The  other  head  is  bolted  to  a  steel  plate  or 
diaphragm,  the  periphery  of  which  is  attached  to  the  flange  of  the 
heater-shell.  This  arrangement  takes  care  of  the  unequal  expan- 
sion between  the  tubes  and  the  shell  under  all  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture and  pressure. 

The  tubes  are  arranged  in  six  nests  and  the  flow  of  water 
through  them  is  controlled  by  partitions  in  the  water-chambers  at 
each  end  of  the  heater,  so  that  the  water 
will  pass  through  each  nest  in  turn,  thus 
traversing  the  heater  six  times.  The  cir- 
culation is  positive  and  the  heater  is  de- 
signed to  give  an  even  distribution  of 
water.  The  exhaust-steam  is  thoroughly 
and  evenly  distributed  by  means  of  par- 
titions in  the  heater-shell  and  the  flow 
is  so  diverted  as  to  pass  three  times 
through  the  heater  and  circulate  freely 
among  the  tubes.  The  absence  of  stuf- 
fing boxes  and  packings  of  any  kind  in 
this  heater  does  away  entirely  with  the 
possibility  of  leakage  and  loss  of  feed- 
water.  The  cross-sectional  area  between 
the  tubes  is  greater  than  the  area  of  the 
exhaust  pipe,  offering  no  obstruction  to 
the  flow  of  the  steam  and  eliminating 
back  pressure. 

Access  to  the  heater  is   had  by  re- 
moving the  heads;  the  tubes  of  the  ver-  pIG.    39a.— Vertical    Multi- 

tical  heaters  can  be  cleaned  from  the  top      current  Feed-water  Heater 

of  800  Horse-pover. — (De- 
and  the  horizontal   heaters  from   either      signed   and  built   by   the 

end.      Mud-blows  are  provided  to  keep      Blake-Knowles     Steam- 

„  pump  Works,  New  York.) 

the  heater  clean  and  free  from  sediment. 

Every  heater  is  tested  under  250  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch, 
giving  a  safe  working  pressure  of  175  pounds. 


166  BOILER-WATERS. 

The  makers  say  that  the  number  of  British  thermal  units  passing 
through  a  square  foot  of  thin  copper  per  hour,  with  a  difference  of  1° 
F.,  between  the  warmer  and  colder  mediums,  is  in  the  case  of  a  high- 
pressure  steam  feed-water  heater  or  evaporator,  400  units  when  the 
steam  and  water  move  at  the  appropriate  speed,  but  only  200  to  240 
units  when  the  steam  and  water  remain  quiet  during  the  heating 
process.  In  low-pressure  steam  apparatus-like  condensers,  feed- 
water  heaters  and  vacuum  evaporators,  the  figures  are  360  units 
when  the  steam  and  water  move  at  the  right  speeds  and  120  units 
when  the  steam  and  water  are  quiet.  In  apparatus  heated  by 
hot  water,  such  as  sterilizers,  200  B.T.U.  are  transmitted  per 
hour  when  the  water  is  moved  in  the  correct  manner  and  40  to 
60  B.T.U.  when  the  water  remains  quiet. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  in  a  test  of  one  of  these 
heaters  of  the  vertical  pattern  rated  at  125  horse-power. 

Exhaust  openings,  inches  diameter 8 

Feed  openings,  inches  diameter 1£ 

Exposed  tube  surface,  square  feet 24.05 

Total  quantity  of  feed-water  passed  through 

heater  per  hour,  pounds 6857 

Initial  temperature  of  feed-water  at  entrance, 

°  F 55 

Temperature  of  feed  after  passing  through  first 

nest  of  tubes,  °  F 118 

Temperature   of   feed    after   passing   through 

second  nest  of  tubes,  °  F 155 

Temperature   of   feed   after   passing   through 

third  nest  of  tubes,  °  F 170 

Temperature   of   feed    after   passing   through 

fourth  nest  of  tubes,  °  F 190 

Temperature    of   feed    after   passing   through 

fifth  nest  of  tubes,  °  F 195.8 

Final  temperature  of  feed  after  passing  through 

sixth  nest,  °  F , 203 

Rise  in  temperature  of  feed-water,  °  F 148 

Temperature  of  steam  leaving  the  heater 206 

Heat  absorbed  by  the  feed-water  per  hour, 

B.T.U 1 ,014,836 

Heat  absorbed  per  square  foot  of  tube  surface 

per  hour,  B.T.U 42,186 

Velocity  of  water  through  tubes  per  minute,  ft.  125 

On  the  basis  of  the  ordinary  commercial  rating  of  1  horse- 
power capacity  per  every  30  pounds  feed-water  heated,  this  test 


FEED- WATER  HEATERS.  167 

shows  that  a  heater  containing  24.05  square  feet  of  the  tube  sur- 
face is  capable  of  handling  228  horse-power.  This  would  reduce 
to  9.5  horse-power  per  square  foot  of  tube  surface  which  is  over 
three  times  better  than  the  commercial  rating  of  3  horse-power 
per  square  foot. 

Steam.Entrance 
at  \  Top. 

\ 

Baffle  extends 
from  Top  near ty 
v  \      to  Bottom. 

'From  Bottom 
nearly  to  Top 

Water\  Entrance 

FIG.  39&. — Baffle  Plates  in  Steam-space.     Partitions  in  Heads  Connected  to 

Water-tubes. 

Diagrams  illustrating  Flow  of  Fluids  in  Feed-water  Heater. 

The  B.T.U.'s  per  degree  difference  of  temperature  of  entering 
water  and  heated  water  for  this  case  are  816,  occupying  on  Mr.  H. 
L.  Hepburn's  diagram  a  position  midway  between  the  corrugated 
and  the  plain-tube  heater. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  water  travels  six  times  the 
length  of  the  heater,  while  in  some  pressure  heaters  never  more 
than  twice  the  length. 

We  now  come  to  a  more  useful  type  of  heater,  as  far  as  the 
completeness  of  throwing  down  scale-forming  substances  from 
the  water  is  concerned — the  open  heater  and  purifier/ 

In  this  class  we  have  the  Cochrane  heater,  which  consists  of  a 
cast-iron  box,  made  in  sections,  bolted  together  at  the  flanges. 

The  upper  parts,  as  shown  by  Fig.  40  and  Fig.  41,  contain 
trays  with  serrated  edges  to  break  up  the  water  as  it  passes  down 
through  or  over  them. 

These  trays  are  all  set  in  the  path  of  the  incoming  exhaust- 
steam,  are  inclined  in  opposite  directions,  and  also  vary  in  number 
and  size  as  is  required  by  the  work  to  be  done  by  the  heater  and 
the  character  of  the  water  fed  to  the  heater.  The  trays  are 
readily  removed  through  the  doors  provided  for  the  purpose,  and 
are  likewise  prevented  by  guides  from  rattling,  apt  to  be  caused 
by  the  pulsations  of  the  entering  exhaust-steam.  The  cold  water 


16S 


BOILER- WATERS. 


entering  the  heater  is  regulated  in  amount  by  means  of  a  balance 
valve  operated  by  a  copper-ball  float  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
heater.  Just  above  the  water  level  is  a  skimmer,  which  is  also  an 
overflow,  draining  to  a  trap.  Eelow  this  outlet  there  is  a  filter- 
bed  of  coke.  The  outflow  of  the  feed-water  is  through  this  coke 
and  under  a  shield  which  keeps  the  coke  away  from  the  outlet. 


FIG   40.— A  Cochrane  Heater. 

The  heater  is  also  fitted  with  an  oil-separator,  gauge-glass, 
blow-off,  and  all  fittings  necessary  to  make  it  a  complete  heater 
and  purifier.  It  is  installed  with  the  exhaust  issuing  from  the  top 
of  the  heater  or  a  vent  out  of  the  top,  and  drawing  the  exhaust- 
steam  through  the  regular  side  inlet,  wasting  what  is  not  required 
for  heating.  This  method  is  used  where  there  is  a  surplus  of  ex- 
haust-steam. 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS.  169 

The  Webster  "vacuum"  heater,  Fig.  42,  is  one  of  the  so-called 
open  heaters;  it  is  however  sealed  from  the  atmosphere,  so  that 
in  case  the  exhaust-steam  from  the  engine  decreases  from  its 
usual  quantity  the  heater  will  draw  from  the  exhaust  pipe  all 
that  is  possible  to  obtain  in  that  way,  and  should  the  steam  be 
less  than  is  required  to  produce  a  certain  temperature  in  the  feed- 
water,  a  partial  vacuum  will  result  and  the  heater  for  a  time  be- 
comes a  sort  of  condenser. 


FIG.  41 — Half -section,  Half -elevation  Cochrane  Heater. 


The  standard  heater  and  purifier  of  this  make  has  a  cast-iron 
shell  exhaust  inlet  near  the  top  and  fitted  with  a  weighted  safety- 
valve.  The  exhaust-steam  is  directed  over  a  series  of  inclined 
copper  trays,  where  it  meets  the  water  which  is  allowed  to  trickle 
over  and  down  from  one  tray  to  the  next.  The  water  then  falls 
to  the  settling-chamber  at  the  highest  temperature  and  from  that 
chamber  it  is  pumped  to  the  bo  lers.  An  apron  across  the  entire 
settling-chamber  in  front  of  the  submerged  outlet  prevents  scum 
or  other  light  impurities  from  passing  to  the  boiler.  The  heater 


170 


BOILER-WATERS. 


may  also  be  provided  with  a  filtering  compartment  where  condi- 
tions require  it. 


(Warren  Webster  &  Co.) 

FIG.  42.— Feed-water  Heater,  Purifier,  and  Filter. 

In  the  Victor  Manufacturing  Company's  cast-iron  feed-water 
heater  and  purifier,  Fig.  43,  the  water  enters  a  balanced  valve 
on  top  of  the  heater  and  runs  into  a  circular  water-box,  the  upper 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


171 


edge  of  which  is  surrated,  from  which  it  runs  into  the  pans  under- 
neath in  very  thin  sheets  if  properly  regulated;  each  alternate  pan 
has  a  hole  in  its  center. 

The  steam  enters  the  side  of  the  heater  and  circulates  about 
the  pans  and  passes  out  of  the  top  of  the  heater.  After  leaving 
the  pans  the  water  passes  down  through  a  pipe  to  a  settling- 
chamber,  where  sediment,  etc.,  can  be  blown  off.  The  water 


FIG.  43.— Vertical  Section  of  Victor  Heater. 

filters  upward  through  the  filter-bed  and  flows  to  a  suction  pipe. 
The  filter  perforated  plates  can  be  easily  removed.  The  incoming 
water  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  copper-ball  float  connected  to 
the  inlet  valve. 

The  Hoppes  live  steam  purifier,  Fig.  44,  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
shell,  in  which  are  arranged  horizontal  pans,  one  over  the  other, 
so  as  to  be  readily  removed.  These  pans  receive  the  feed-water, 
and  through  contact  of  the  steam  with  the  water  the  heavier 


1 72  BOILER-WATERS. 

solids  settle,  while  carbonates,  sulphates,  silica,  and  other  scale- 
forming  substances  adhere  to  the  under  sides.  The  elastic  feature 
of  the  trays  enables  them  to  be  twisted  and  distorted  and  the  hard 
substance  can  be  easily  removed  from  them. 

The  Hoppes  heater,  though  similar  to  the  purifier  in  so  far  as 
the  form  of  the  pans  is  concerned,  consists  of  a  steel  cylinder,  cast- 
iron  heads  easily  opened  for  cleaning  the  trays.  The  exhaust-steam 
after  passing  through  an  oil-separator  enters  the  heater  at  the  rear 


FIG.  44  —Heater  Made  by  the  Hoppes  Mfg.  Co. 

end  and  leaves  the  shell  at  the  front,  that  is  such  portion  of  it  as 
has  not  been  condensed. 

The  Still  well  heater  and  purifier,  Fig.  45,  is  similar  in  operation 
to  other  open  heaters.  It  is  built  with  a  riveted-steel  shell,  and 
is  equipped  with  flat  strainers,  located  midway  of  its  height,  with 
a  filtering  chamber  at  the  bottom. 

Steam  is  admitted  to  a  cast-iron  hood-piece  opposite  the  trays 
in  the  bottom  of  which  the  entrained  oil  is  collected  and  from 
which  it  is  discharged.  The  steam  then  passes  up  through  the 


FEED-WATER  HEATERS. 


173 


filter  compartment,  then  over  a  partition  to  a  pure-water  pocket, 
and  then  out  at  the  bottom.  The  rating  of  an  open  heater  is  a 
matter  in  which  little  has  been  recorded. 

A  common  rule  for  a  pressure  or  closed-tube  heater  is  to  allow 
•J  square  foot  of  heating-surface  for  one  boiler  horse-power,  water 


FIG.  45.— The  Stillwell  Combined  Heater  and  Filter. 

heated  to  210°-212°  F.  In  designing  a  heater,  however,  the 
heating-surface  should  be  made  large  enough  or  ample  to  transmit 
the  maximum  number  of  heat-units  per  unit  of  time,  and  then 
the  water  velocity  should  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  required  capacity. 
One  heater  manufacturer  bases  his  sizes  on  350  B.T.U.  as 
the  maximum  transmitted,  while  for  some  types  we  should  take 


174 


BOILER-WATERS. 


not  more  than  150  to  200  B.T.U.  as  the  maximum.  For  open 
heaters  the  capacity  is  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  steam  and 
water  that  can  be  brought  together  in  a  unit  of  time  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  is  necessarily  determined  by  the  experience  of 
the  maker  with  the  results  obtained  by  his  machine  in  many 
localities. 

From  a  large  experience  with  feed-water  heaters,  Mr.  J.  M. 
Duncan  has  given  this  information : 

ANALYSES  OF  WATERS. 
(Grains  per  Gallon.) 


Artesian 
Well. 

A. 

Ponds  and 
Springs. 

B. 

To  Boiler. 
C. 

City 
Water. 

D 

Artesian 
Well. 

E. 

Carbonate  of  lime  
'  '          '  '  magnesia  
Sulphate  of  lime       

2.90 
9.40 
11  65 

8.81 
6.49 
0  83 

3.75 

2.58 
0  58 

}    8.56 
18  42 

9.44 
6  46 

Sodium  chloride  

76.40 

65  52 

5  27 

Alumina 

0  52 

Iron  oxide 

0  93 

Organic  matter     

Trace 

22  23 

5  10 

Totals    

100  87 

16.13 

6  91 

114  73 

27  20 

A.  N.  Y.  &  Queens  Co.  R.R.  Co.  Power  Station,  Astoria,  L.  I. 

B.  Union  Car  Co.,  Depew,  N.  Y. 

C.  Same  after  passing  through  open  heater,  where  10  Ibs.  soda-ash  were 
added  to  water  per  day. 

Boiler  plant,  1000  H.P.  Root  boilers. 

Deposit,  1  to  1£  bbls.  of  soft  sludge  removed  every  two  weeks. 

D  and  E.  Astoria,  L.  I.,  Silk-mills. 

D.  Requires  1  Ib.  trisodium  phosphate  for  each  50  boiler  H.P.  per  day. 

Fuel  Economizers. — Another  form  of  feed-water  heaters  obtains 
the  heat  from  the  flue-gases  after  they  leave  the  boiler  or  furnace 
on  their  way  to  the  chimney  or  other  outlet.  They  are  in  reality 
sectional  feed-water  heaters,  consist :ng  of  a  great  number  of  cast- 
iron  pipes  or  tubes  about  4  inches  in  diameter  by  9  or  10  feet  long, 
set  in  rows  and  connected  together  by  the  necessary  headers. 
The  water  is  pumped  into  them  at  the  end  farthest  from  the 
boiler  up-take  and  taken  out  where  the  gases  are  the  hottest. 
Each  tube  is  provided  with  a  geared  scraper  which  is  moved 


FEED- WATER  HEATERS. 


175 


FIG.  46. — Green  Fuel  Economizer. 


176  BOILER-WATERS. 

up  and  down  the  outside  of  the  pipe,  removing  all  soot  as  fast 
as  it  accumulates.  A  small  amount  of  power  from  engine  or  motor 
does  this  work. 

The  tubes  are  tested  to  a  pressure  of  500  pounds  per  square 
inch;  the  water  in  them  when  in  use  is  at  boiler  pressure. 

The  whole  apparatus  should  be  encased  in  a  brick  wall  or  other 
non-conducting  covering.  The  pipes  should  be  blown-off  once 
each  day,  as  otherwise  the  scale  will  accumulate  in  them,  and  they 
should  have  more  care  than  ordinary  feed-water  heaters. 

Fig.  46  shows  a  Green  fuel  economizer.  Economizers  mate- 
rially add  to  the  efficiency  of  many  steam-plants.  These  figures 
are  from  one  actual  case: 

Boiler  horse-power 1200 

Heating-surface  in  economizer 6400  sq.  ft. 

Flue  area  for  economizer 6400  sq.  in. 

Economizer  tube  surface  per  boiler  H.P 5.33  sq.  ft. 

Cost,  erected,   per  square  foot   of  economizer 

surface 80  cents 

Cost,  erected,  per  H.P.  of  boilers $4  to  $6 

The  draft  in  a  chimney  is  reduced  by  passing  the  gases 
through  an  economizer,  for  the  temperature  is  reduced  from 
400°-500°  F.  to  265°-300°  F.,  or  even  lower. 

Water  is  heated  in  the  economizer  to  a  much  higher  degree 
than  in  a  steam-heater,  depending  on  the  temperature  of  the 
escaping  gases  as  to  its  higher  limit. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  and  in  some  cases  chloride  of  magnesium 
and  calcium  sulphate,  are  removed  from  the  water  passing  through 
economizers. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
WATER-SOFTENING. 

SOFTENED  water  is  water  which  has  been  freed  from  the  salts 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  iron,  and  aluminium.  It  cannot  produce 
scale  nor  corrosion.  Dr.  Clark,  chemist,  invented  the  first  soften- 
ing process  about  sixty  years  ago  in  England,  treating  water  with 
lime  to  remove  the  carbonic  acid  and  lime  and  magnesia  car- 
bonates. Then  came  Dr.  Porter's  process  of  using  soda-ash  to 
remove  the  sulphates  of  calcium  and  magnesia.  Following  this 
has  come  the  Porter-Clark  process,  which  is  a  combination  of  the 
two  just  mentioned. 

The  use  of  alum  for  purification  dates  to  early  times  in  China 
and  India. 

Water  can  be  softened  down  to  3  to  4  grains  of  scale-forming 
ingredients  per  gallon,  but  if  the  quantity  is  reduced  to  5  to  7 
grains  it  will  give  satisfactory  results. 

Chemistry  of  Softening  Water.— Softening  of  water  is  accom- 
plished by  chemical  precipitation.  To  remove  carbonates  lime  is 
used.  On  adding  lime  the  carbonic  acid  unites  with  it,  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  calcium  carbonate.  This  is  the  reaction: 

CaC03  +  CO2  +  Ca(OH)2  =  CaCO3  +  H2O. 

Being  but  slightly  soluble,  it  is  precipitated. 

The  reaction  for  carbonate  of  magnesia  is  something  like  this: 

MgCO3  +  CO2  +  Ca(OH)2  =  MgCO3  +  CaCO3  +  H2O  ; 

but  magnesium  carbonate  being  quite  soluble,  a  further  quantity 
of  lime  must  be  added: 

MgC03  +  Ca(OH)2=Mg(OH)2+CaC03; 

then  the  hydrate  is  precipitated. 

177 


178  BOILER-WATERS. 

Sulphates  are  removed  by  the  use  of  sodium  carbonate;  lime 
is  required  for  magnesium  sulphate: 

CaSO4  +  NaC03  =  CaCO3  +  Na2S04 

^ 

and 

MgSO4  +  Ca(OH)2  +  Na2C03  =  Mg(OH)2  +  CaCO3  +  Na2S04. 

Sodium  sulphate  is  quite  soluble  and  an  unobjectionable  sub- 
stance in  quantity  usually  found  in  water.  Chlorides  and  nitrates 
may  be  removed  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  sulphates. 

Carbonate  Waters. — Where  carbonate  of  lime  alone  is  present, 
for  each  grain  per  gallon  of  carbonate  of  lime  found  in  the  water 
4  ounces  of  pure  caustic  lime  per  1000  gallons  of  water  will  be 
required  to  precipitate  the  lime  as  carbonate. 

Sulphate  Waters. — Where  there  is  only  the  sulphate  of  lime 
present,  for  every  grain  of  sulphate  of  lime  per  gallon  found  in  the 
water,  If  ounces  of  pure  carbonate  of  soda  (soda-ash)  are  required 
per  1000  gallons  of  water  treated. 

Carbonate  and  Sulphate  Waters. — The  carbonate  and  sulphate 
of  lime  both  being  present,  as  is  the  case  in  some  waters,  caustic 
soda  alone  is  all  that  is  needed  to  precipitate  both  of  the  salts. 

For  water  containing  6  grains  of  the  carbonate  per  gallon  of 
water,  use  9  ounces  of  pure  caustic  soda  per  1000  gallons  of  water 
to  be  treated,  which  quantity  should  also  eliminate  8.16  grains  of 
the  sulphate.  A  water  containing  14.16  grains  of  the  two  kinds 
of  salts  per  gallon,  of  which  6  grains  were  carbonate  and  8.16  sul- 
phate, would  be  treated  by  adding  caustic  soda  as  above. 

The  cost  of  any  process  or  method  of  treatment  depends  to  a 
great  extent  upon  the  chemistry  of  the  water  to  be  treated,  of 
which  the  following  tables  *  will  give  some  idea. 

One  pound  of  "carbonate  of  lime"  requires  for  its  precipita- 
tion: 

.  56  lb.    of  lime  at  I  cent  per  pound $0 .0014 

or  .80  "  "  caustic  soda  at  2  cents  per  pound. . .  .0160 
or  3.15  Ibs.  "  barium  hydrate  at  1\  cents  per  lb..  .  .0787 
or  2.18  "  "  sodium  phosphate  at  4  cents  per 

pound 0872 

or  11.92  "    "  tannin    extract,   27%,    at   2f   cents 

per  pound 3278 

or     2 . 28  "     ' '  sugar  at  5  cents  per  pound 1 140 

*  Kennicott  Water-softener  Co. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


179 


One  pound  of  "sulphate  of  lime"  requires  for  its  precipitation: 

.85  Ib.  of  soda-ash  at  1  cent  per  pound $0.0085 

or  1 .94  Ibs.  "  sal-soda  at  .65  cent  per  pound 0126 

or  1.53  "  "  barium  chloride  at  2  cents  per  Ib. .  .  .0306 
or  1.60  "  "  sodium  phosphate  at  4  cents  per 

pound 0640 

or  8.76  "  "  tannin  extract,  27%,  at  2|  cents... 

pei  pound 2409 

or  1 . 68  "  "  sugar  at  5  cents  per  pound 0840 

And  such  other  reagents  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

The  method  of  softening  as  employed  by  the  Industrial  Water 
Co.  is  that  in  use  on  the  Pennsylvania  Lines  west  of  Pittsburgh, 
Northwest  System,  at  Middlepoint,  Ohio,  where  a  machine  of 
capacity  to  soften  10,000  gallons  of  water  an  hour  is  in  use.*  The 
water  to  be  treated  is  a  particularly  bad  one,  yet  the  softening  and 
purification  are  practically  complete,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing analysis  (grains  per  U.  S.  gallon). 


Raw 
Water. 

Treated 

Water. 

Calcium  carbonate,  CaCO3  

16  50 

2  14 

'  '        sulphate,  CaSO4  

16  08 

Magnesium  carbonate   MgOO* 

1  32 

'  '           sulphate   MgSO4 

19  65 

"           chloride,  MgCl2 

1  61 

Sodium  carbonate,  Na2CO3         .        

0  21 

'  '        sulphate,  Na2SO4   

3  76 

43  81 

'  '        chloride,  NaCl     

2  64 

Silica  SiO 

0  65 

0  58 

Oxides  of  iron  and  aluminium,  Fe2O3,  A12O3  
Volatile  and  organic  matter 

0.19 

7  46 

0.19 
1  23 

Total  solids                       .                                . 

63  52 

51  61 

Scale-forming  solids       

54  68 

4  23 

Besides  the  impurities  shown  in  this  analysis,  the  raw  water  is 
impregnated  with  sulphureted  hydrogen,  which  renders  it  espe- 
cially corrosive  to  the  brass  fittings. 

The  chemicals  used  are  fresh  lime  and  soda-ash,  and  this  par- 
ticular water  requires  for  treatment  approximately  4.75  pounds  of 
lime  and  4.5  pounds  of  soda  per  thousand  gallons.  Running  at 
full  capacity,  1744  pounds  of  incrusting  calcium  and  magnesium 
salts  are  removed  per  day. 

*  Railroad  Gazette,  1903. 


180 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Referring  to  the  sectional  view,  the  water  enters  the  inlet  7 
and  passes  to  the  overshot  water-wheel  W,  which  furnishes  the 


FIG.  47. — Water-softening  Plant,  Middlepoint,  Ohio— Pennsylvania  Lines 
West  of  Pittsburgh. 

power  to  drive  the  stirring-devices.  Once  in  twenty-four  hours 
lime  is  slaked  in  the  box  Ib  and  dropped  through  the  pipe  Ip  to 
the  bottom  of  the  lime-tank  L,  where  it  is  kept  in  suspension  as 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


181 


182  BOILER-WATERS. 

milk  of  lime  by  the  rotation  of  the  agitator  L5.  Through  the  gate 
LI,  in  the  bottom  of  the  water-wheel  box,  a  definite  proportion  of 
raw  water  flows  by  the  chute  L2  and  the  bowl  L3  down  the  pipe  L4 
and  ascends'  through  the  suspended  milk  of  lime.  In  its  slow  up- 
ward progress  it  dissolves  a  sufficiency  of  calcium  hydroxide  and 
becomes  saturated  lime-water.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  agitators 
in  the  upper  portion  of  this  tank,  the  liquid  there  is  comparatively 
quiet,  and  by  the  time  the  exit  L6  is  reached,  all  the  heavy  parti- 
cles of  milk  of  lime  have  been  left  behind  by  the  lime-water,  which 
issues  clear  and  is  of  constant  strength.  Flowing  through  the  chute 
L6  it  meets  the  main  body  of  raw  water  from  the  gate  Rl  as  well 
as  the  proper  proportion  of  soda-ash  solution  which  has  previously 
been  prepared  in  the  box  sb.  The  soda  solution  is  fed  by  means  of 
the  valve  SV,  which  is  so  constructed  and  automatically  operated 
that  the  flow  of  solution  is  always  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
water  to  be  treated.  The  water  and  the  reagents  then  pass  down- 
ward through  the  reaction-pipe  R2  into  the  reaction-tank  R.  This 
tank  is  of  such  a  size  as  to  permit  the  water  to  remain  in  it  for  a 
period  of  half  an  hour,  during  which  time  it  is  very  thoroughly 
agitated  by  means  of  the  stirrer-bars  on  three  vertical  shafts,  R3, 
R3,  R3,  actuated  from  the  water-wheel  by  beveled  gearing  and 
chain  transmission.  When  it  is  ready  to  pass  out  at  R4  and 
through  the  downtake  D  into  the  settling-tank  S,  all  the  reactions 
are  completed  and  the  precipitate  is  in  such  condition  that  it  will 
settle  very  readily.  The  precipitate  subsides  to  the  bottom  of  the 
settling-tank  S;  the  treated  water  rises  slowly  and  passes  through 
the  wood-fiber  filter  F,  where  the  very  small  quantity  of  matter 
which  is  carried  in  suspension  is  deposited.  The  water  then  flows 
clear  and  soft  from  the  outlet  0  to  the  storage- tank.  At  intervals 
the  precipitates  which  have  settled  to  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  are 
disposed  of  by  opening  the  valves  V,  V,  V.  In  washing  the  filter 
and  disposing  of  the  precipitates,  approximately  3  per  cent  of  the 
total  amount  of  water  treated  daily  is  used.  When  required,  water 
is  supplied  to  the  lime-box  Ib  and  the  soda-box  sb  through  the 
piping  P.  This  also  supplies  water  for  operating  the  brake-con- 
trolled chemical  hoist  H,  which  has  capacity  to  raise  200  pounds 
of  reagents  in  10  seconds.  By  means  of  the  trolley  crane  TC  and 
the  receiving  platform  RP  the  chemicals  are  conveniently  distrib- 
uted to  their  respective  boxes. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


183 


Another  plant  installed  by  the  same  company,  whose  system  is 
one  of  continuous  operation,  combined  with  automatic  regulation 
of  the  supply  of  chemicals,  is  at  Ivorydale,  Ohio,  at  the  works  of  the 
Proctor  &  Gamble  Co.,  with  a  capacity  of  35,000  gallons  per 
hour.  It  purifies  all  the  water  used  for  feed  purposes  in  their 
boiler-house,  which  supplies  the  steam  used  in  the  manufacture  of 


FIG.  49.— Water-softening  Plant  of  Proctor  and  Gamble  Co., 
Ivorydale,  Ohio. 

soap  and  candles,  as  well  as  that  required  in  the  refining  of  cotton- 
seed-oil and  glycerin.  In  addition,  softened  water  is  also  supplied 
to  the  boilers  of  the  company's  electric-lighting  plant,  and  also 
to  the  locomotives  of  the  Ivorydale  &  Millcreek  Valley  R.R. 

The  plant  installed  is  shown  by  the  view,  Fig.  49,  and  by  the 
plan  and  sections,  Figs.  50  and  51.  It  consists  of  a  lime-tank,  a 
reaction-tank  and  two  settling-tanks,  with  a  wood-fiber  filter  at 


184 


BOILER-WATERS. 


1 

E 

I 
I 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


185 


186  BOILER-WATERS. 

the  top  of  each  settling-tank  through  which  the  water  passes  in 
its  upward  flow.  In  addition  there  are  two  small  vats  for  slak- 
ing lime  and  two  similar  ones  for  preparing  soda-ash  solution,  all 
supported  on  the  lime-tank. 

The  untreated  water  first  passes  to  the  overshot  wheel,  located 
over  the  reaction-tank,  as  shown  in  Figs.  50  and  51.  After 
serving  its  purpose  here,  by  driving  agitators  in  the  reaction- 
tank,  the  water  is  divided  into  two  parts:  The  main  part 
goes  into  the  reaction-tank  and  a  definite  portion  flows  to  the 
bottom  of  the  lime-tank  through  a  central  inlet  pipe.  Milk  of 
lime  is  prepared  once  in  twelve  hours  in  the  lime-slaking  vats, 
and  admitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  lime-tank,  where  the  lime  is 
kept  in  suspension  by  the  rotating  agitator  shown  in  Figs.  50  and 
51.  In  its  slow  upward  progress  through  the  milk  of  lime  the 
untreated  water  dissolves  a  sufficiency  of  calcium  hydroxide  and 
becomes  saturated  lime-water.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  agita- 
tors in  the  upper  portion  of  this  tank  the  liquid  there  is  compara- 
tively quiet,  and  by  the  tune  the  exit  is  reached  all  the  heavy 
particles  of  milk  of  lime  have  been  left  behind  by  the  lime-water, 
which  issues  clear  and  of  constant  strength.  Flowing  through 
the  chute  it  meets  the  main  body  of  raw  water  issuing  from  the 
gate  in  the  bottom  of  the  wheel-box,  as  well  as  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  soda-ash  solution  which  has  previously  been  prepared 
in  the  soda-vats. 

The  plant  was  designed  to  have  ample  capacity  to  ensure: 
(1)  The  use  of  nothing  but  clear  saturated  lime-water;  (2)  Com- 
plete reaction  of  the  chemicals;  (3)  Thorough  settling,  with  an 
upward  rise  of  water  at  so  slow  a  rate  that  almost  none  of  the  pre- 
cipitate reaches  the  wood-fiber  filter;  thus  rendering  it  unneces- 
sary to  renew  the  wood  fiber  except  at  very  long  intervals. 

An  analysis  of  water  before  and  after  treatment,  by  Froehling 
&  Robertson,  of  Richmond,  Va.,  is  given  on  the  next  page. 

This  particular  water  requires  for  treatment  approximately 
4  pounds  of  fresh  lime  and  0.5  pound  soda  ash  per  1000  gallons. 
When  running  at  full  capacity  2006  pounds  per  day  of  incrusting 
calcium  and  magnesium  salts  are  removed  by  this  plant. 

The  soda  solution  is  fed  by  means  of  a  valve  and  connections 
which  are  so  constructed  and  automatically  operated  that  the 
flow  of  solution  is  always  proportional  to  the  amount  of  water  to 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


187 


Grains  per 

U.  S.  Gal. 

Raw  Water. 

Treated 
Water. 

Silica                              

0  .  7523 

0  .  2099 

Alumina  and  iron  oxid6 

0641 

0641 

Calcium  carbonate 

13  3140 

7990 

'  '        sulphate                              •            .        ... 

1750 

5190 

Magnesium  sulphate            

3  0384 

1  2072 

'  '           carbonate         .    ,    

3  1142 

3966 

Sodium  chloride         

1.2772 

1  3297 

'  '       sulphate 

4141 

1  7962 

Total 

22  1493 

6  3217 

Eng.  News,  Vol.  51. 

be  treated.  The  water  and  the  reagents  then  pass  downward 
through  a  pipe  into  the  reaction-tank.  This  tank  is  of  such  size 
as  to  permit  the  water  to  remain  in  it  for  a  period  of  one  hour, 
during  which  time  it  is  thoroughly  agitated  by  means  of  the  stirrer 
bars  on  five  vertical  shafts,  actuated  from  the  water-wheel  by 
beveled  gearing  and  chain  transmission.  When  the  water  is 
ready  to  pass  to  and  through  the  downtakes  into  the  settling- 
tanks,  all  the  reactions  are  completed  and  the  precipitate  is  in 
such  condition  that  it  will  settle  very  readily.  The  precipitate 
subsides  to  the  bottom  of  the  settling-tanks;  the  treated  water 
rises  slowly  and  passes  through  the  wood-fiber  filters,  where  the 
very  small  quantity  of  matter  which  is  carried  in  suspension  is 
deposited.  The  water  then  flows  clear  and  soft  from  the  outlets 
to  the  various  boiler  houses. 

At  intervals  the  precipitates  which  have  settled  to  the  bottom 
of  the  settling-tanks  are  disposed  of  by  opening  the  valves  con- 
nected with  the  sludge  piping,  located  at  the  bottom  of  the  settling- 
tanks. 

In  washing  the  filter  and  disposing  of  the  precipitates,  approxi- 
mately 2  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  water  treated  daily  is  used 

Hoisting  apparatus  is  provided  to  raise  the  various  reagents 
from  the  ground  level  to  the  lime-  and  the  soda-mixing  vate. 

Mr.  E.  J.  Yard,  chief  engineer  of  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande, 
says:  We  have  three  purifying  plants  in  use  on  this  system.  Two 
were  put  in  by  the  Industrial  Company — one  at  Ruby  and  one 
at  Helper,  and  one  by  the  Tweeddale  Company  at  Thompson's 


188     •  BOILER-WATERS. 

Springs.  The  estimated  cost  of  chemicals  per  1000  gallons  at 
Ruby  and  Helper  is  approximately  1  cent;  the  cost  for  operating 
the  plant,  including  labor  and  chemicals,  averages  about  4  cents. 
The  cost  of  the  chemicals  per  1000  gallons  of  water  treated  at 
Thompson's  by  the  Tweeddale  system  is  7.6  cents;  labor,  fuel 
and  incidentals  bring  up  the  total  cost  of  treatment  to  11 J  cents. 

The  Pennsylvania  Lines  West  of  Pittsburgh  report  two  plants, 
put  in  by  the  Industrial  Company  at  Washington  and  Middlepoint, 
Ohio,  respectively,  and  in  service  since  June. 

The  figures  for  Washington  are:  Total  cost  per  1000  gallons 
2.238  cents;  average  scale- forming  material  in  raw  water,  29.04; 
average  degree  of  hardness  of  treated  water,  4.97.  For  Middlepoint : 
Total  cost  per  1000  gallons  6.052  cents;  average  scale-forming 
material  in  raw  water,  54.17;  average  degree  of  hardness  of  treated 
water,  5.98. 

The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  furnishes  some  figures 
on  the  cost  of  operating  16  purifying  plants  on  the  North  Western 
during  July,  1903,  giving  the  cost  of  pumping  water  without 
softening,  and  the  cost  of  softening.  The  former  ranges  from  1.59 
to  8.17  cents  per  1000  gallons,  and  the  latter  from  0.73  to  6.33 
cents  per  1000  gallons,  for  the  different  stations.  The  cost  of 
chemicals  ranged  from  0.47  to  6.94  cents  per  1000  gallons. 

Figs.  52,  53,  and  54  illustrate  the  Kennicott  water-softener.  It 
consists  of  a  tall  cylindrical  tank  with  a  platform  at  its  top,  on 
which  is  located  the  apparatus  for  dissolving  the  reagents  and 
automatically  varying  their  inlet  to  the  raw  water. 

In  the  center  of  the  tank  is  a  conical  downtake,  within  which 
is  the  lime-water  saturator;  the  mixing-tank  for  this  is  in  its  top. 

After  reagents  and  raw  water  are  thoroughly  mixed,  the  scale- 
forming  substances  are  deposited  at  the  bottom,  from  which  they 
are  blown  off  or  run  off  to  sewer.  After  the  water  comes  down 
the  central  tube  it  rises  through  the  perforated  baffle  plates,  upon 
which  plates  any  remaining  precipitate  is  gathered,  after  which  it 
falls  off  to  bottom.  These  plates  never  have  to  be  cleaned.  At 
the  top  the  water  finally  passes  through  a  wood-fiber  filter,  where 
any  precipitate  which  has  gotten  through  the  baffle  plates  is  taken 
up;  the  water  then  passes  through  the  overflow  outlet  to  the 
proper  supply  lines. 

The  power  for  mixing  reagents  and  water  is  supplied  by  the 


WATER-SOFTEN  ING. 


189 


.FiG.  52.— Kennicott  Water-softener. 


190  BOILER-WATERS. 

water  passing  over  a  water-wheel  in  a  casing,  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  lime  and  soda-ash  are  lifted  by  the  same  power; 
a  drum  on  the  water-wheel  shaft,  loose  fit,  is  engaged  by  a  clutch 
and  operates  a  rope,  also  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  water  flows  from  the  "hard-water  box,"  top  of  Fig.  54, 
into  the  softener  over  the  encased  water-wheel;  one  or  more  of 
the  reagent  boxes  like  the  one  shown  at  the  bottom  of  Fig.  54  are 
provided  as  needed. 


FIG.  53.  —  Kennicott  Automatic  Hoisting  Apparatus. 

As  the  amount  of  the  water  pumped  into  the  softener  varies 
the  head  of  water  in  hard-water  box  it  raises  or  lowers  the  float 
in  it.  This  float  is  connected  to  the  lift-pipe,  so  that  the  head  of 
the  reagent  over  the  opening  in  the  lift-pipe  is  at  all  times  the  same 
as  the  head  of  hard  water  over  opening  in  hard-water  box. 

The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  has  eleven  Kennicott  softeners, 
varying  in  capacity  from  8000  to  20,000  gallons  per  hour.  Twenty- 
five  more  are  now  under  erection  at  the  rate  of  three  per  month. 
The  cost  of  chemicals  varies  from  0.3  to  3.6  cents  per  1000  gallons. 
The  ten  plants  now  in  operation  treat  1,441,000  gallons  per  day 
at  an  average  cost  of  1 J  cent  sper  1000  gallons.  The  chief  engineer 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


191 


says:  "The  saving  in  boiler  repairs  certainly  warrants  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  amount  necessary  to  treat  the  waters  at  all  points 
where  we  either  have,  or  are  erecting,  softeners.  Another  saving 
is  in  locomotive  fuel,  which  will  be  no  small  item.  ...  In  the  ten 
plants  we  are  removing  2790  pounds  of  solids  per  day.  Cost  of 
chemicals  for  this  work  is  58£  cents  per  100  pounds  of  incrusting 


FIG.  54. — Kennicott  Automatic-regulating  Device. 

solids  removed.  Even  though  this  figure  were  doubled  it  would 
still  be  an  economy,  as  any  experienced  man  knows  that  100  pounds 
tof  scale  cannot  be  removed  from  boilers  for  any  such  figure." 

The  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  &  Omaha  has  four  Helwig 
and  one  Kennicott  softener.  The  average  cost  for  chemicals 
per  1000  gallons  is  given  at  3  cents. 


192 


BOILER-WATERS. 


FIG.  55.— Kennicott  Water-softener,  Union  Pacific  R  R.,  Columbus,  Neb. 


WATER-SOFTENING.  193 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  there  are  two  systems  of 
water  softening,  the  intermittent  and  the  automatic  apparatus; 
the  one  now  about  to  be  described  and  the  two  preceding  belong 
to  the  latter  classification,  the  remainder  to  the  intermittent  type. 

The  N.  Y.  Continental  Jewell  Filtration  Company's  scientific- 
automatic  water-softening  apparatus  is  so  called  because  the  raw 
water  flows  into  the  apparatus  in  a  continuous  stream  at  the  point 
of  the  inlet,  the  purified  water  likewise  flowing  continuously  from 
the  point  of  outlet.  The  apparatus  comprises  one  main  settling- 
tank,  smaller  auxiliary  tanks  for  chemical  solutions,  mixing,  etc. 
The  water  enters  the  inlet  or  controlling-tank  through  a  valve  at 
the  top,  and  is  automatically  controlled  by  a  system  of  floats. 
It  then  flows  over  a  water-wheel,  furnishing  power  for  the  mix- 
ing devices,  thence  to  a  lower  vessel  in  which  the  flow  is  divided 
by  means  of  an  adjustable  gate;  the  larger  portion  goes  to  mix- 
ing-tank, the  balance  to  solution-tank  where  it  dissolves  the 
reagent,  the  solution  being  carried  to  mixing-tank,  encountering 
the  steam  of  raw  water.  Here  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  by  a  con- 
tinuously revolving  mechanical  agitator.  From  here  it  passes  to 
the  bottom  of  a  large  settling-tank,  where  it  slowly  rises  to  the 
top,  the  heavier  particles  settling.  In  the  top  of  the  tank  is  a 
bed  of  filtering  material,  intercepting  the  lighter  particles  and 
allowing  the  softened  water  to  flow  from  the  top  outlet  bright 
and  clear. 

Another  system  of  water-softening  apparatus,  designed  by  the 
N.  Y.  Continental  Jewell  Filtration  Company,  is  known  as  the 
Intermittent  type,  so  called  because  each  tank  of  a  series  is  filled, 
treated  according  to  its  individual  requirements,  and  the  water 
is  entirely  consumed  before  allowing  any  more  raw  water  to  enter 
the  tank. 

Tank  A  is  filled  with  raw  water,  then  the  proper  weight  of 
chemical  reagents  are  added  and  the  mechanical  agitator  is  set 
in  operation  until  we  obtain  a  complete  mixture  of  the  chemicals 
and  water;  the  stirring  is  then  stopped  and  the  water  comes  to 
a  state  of  rest,  and  must  remain  so  for  the  complete  precipitation 
of  all  the  heavy  particles  of  sediment  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

The  water  is  drawn  off  near  the  surface  by  means  of  a  floating 
outlet  pipe;  this  water  then  flows  through  connecting  piping  to  a 
filter,  after  passing  which  it  is  clear  and  ready  for  consumption. 


194 


BOILER-WATERS. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


195 


196 


BOILER-WATERS. 


While  this  process  has  been  going  on  in  tank  A  tank  B  has 
been  furnishing  the  water  for  consumption. 

The  operation  is  thus  continued ;  first  one  tank  then  the  other. 

In  one  plant  using  this  company's  system  of  softening  the 
analysis  of  water  before  and  after  treatment  is: 


Grains  p< 

jr  Gallon. 

Before. 

After. 

Oxide  of  iron.  .  .  
Carbonate  of  lime  
'  '          '  '  magnesia.  .  . 
Hydrate  of  magnesia.  .  .  . 
Sulphate  of  soda  
"       •  '  '  lime 

.630 
10.768 

4.777 

1  725 

1.450 

.870 
1.802 

Chloride  of  sodium  

2.080 

2.000 

Grains  per  U.  S.  gallon.  .  . 
Hardness,  Clark,  degs.  F. 

19.981 
17.5 

6.172 
3.00 

A  typical  installation  of  the  We-fu-go  system    is  that  at  the 
Lorain  Steel  Company's  works,  Lorain,  Ohio. 


FIG.  58. -Operating  Floor  of  the  We-fu-go  System  (12,000  B.H.P). 
Lorain  Steel  Co.,  Lorain,  Ohio. 


WATER-SOFTENING.  197 

In  this  plant  the  water  supply  first  enters  the  settling-  or 
chemical-treatment  tank.  A  two-armed  paddle  near  the  bottom 
of  this  tank  thoroughly  mixes  the  chemicals  and  water.  Water 
from  the  hot  well  of  the  blower-engine  condensing-plant  hastens 
the  chemical  reactions.  From  the  treating-tank  the  water  flows 
by  gravity  to  the  filters,  where  all  impure  solid  matter  which 
did  not  settle  in  treating-tank  is  removed.  From  here  the  water 
passes  by  gravity  to  the  clean-water  reservoir  for  storage,  from 
which  it  is  pumped  to  the  heaters  and  steam-boilers. 

A  We-fu-go  plant  at  Bloomington,  111.,  on  the  Chicago  &  Alton 
K.R.  is  reported  to  soften  water  at  a  cost  of  about  6  cents  per 
1000  gallons. 

A  large  plant,  ultimately  to  soften  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000 
gallons  of  water  a  day  has  been  furnished  the  Tennessee  Coal  & 
Iron  R.R.  Company  at  Ensley,  Ala.,  by  the  Pittsburg  Filter  Manu- 
facturing Company;  it  treats  water  from  village  creek,  which  is 
especially  bad  duing  the  dry  weather,  as  can  be  seen  from  this 
analysis : 

Grains  per  U.  S.  Gallon. 

Sodium  chloride 3 . 67 

Calcium  sulphate 12 . 47 

Magnesium  sulphate 11 .00 

Silica 4 .02 

Iron  sulphate 6 . 53 

Organic  matter 1 . 92 

Free  sulphuric  acid 9.81 

The  free  sulphuric  acid  is  due  to  pollution  by  manufacturing 
plants  and  may  be  nil  in  winter  and  early  spring.  Lime  and  soda- 
ash  are  the  chemicals  employed,  and  they  are  prepared  sepa- 
rately in  600-gal.  tanks;  tanks  are  in  duplicate.  The  solutions 
are  run  to  the  raw-water  or  precipitating  tank,  which  after  being 
filled  is  stirred  up  by  compressed  air  at  10  to  20  pounds  pressure, 
and  after  standing  from  one  to  four  hours  the  clarified  water  is 
drawn  down  to  12  inches  deep  at  the  shallowest  part.  Sludge  is 
flushed  out  to  sewer  as  necessary.  Two  mechanical  pressure-filters 
20  feet  in  diameter  by  8  feet  high  are  used  in  this  plant.  The 
filters  are  washed  out  about  once  a  week.  Underneath  the  filters 
is  a  clear-water  reservoir  with  a  capacity  of  18,000  gallons,  from 
which  the  clear  water  for  cleansing  the  filters  is  lifted  by  the  cen- 
trifugal pumps. 


198 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


199 


(Pittsburgh  Filter  Manufacturing  Co.) 

FIG.  60.— Continuous  Water-softener. 


200  BOILER-WATERS. 

As  an  example  of  municipal  water-softening,  one  of  the  largest, 
if  not  the  largest,  plant  now  in  operation  is  that  designed  by  the 
Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory,  Limited,  at  Winnipeg,  Manitoba. 
Mr.  James  O.  Handy,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  laboratory,  has  fur- 
nished the  following  notes  concerning  it.  The  plant  is  illustrated 
by  Figs.  60a,  606,  and  60c. 

The  Winnipeg  Softening-plant. — The  artesian-well  water  sup- 
plied to  Winnipeg  contains  in  its  natural  state  the  following  ele- 
ments in  the  amounts  stated: 

Carbonate  of  lime 16.0  gra  ns  per  imperial  gallon 

' '          ' '  magnesium  ..8.5'  '  ' 

Sulphate  of  magnesium.  ..12.0'  '  ' 

"  sodium 5.5      ' 

Carbonate  of  sodium 3.0*  '  ' 

Chloride  of  sodium 27.5      ' 

Other  compounds  are  present  in  minute  amounts  and  are  of  no 
significance  in  this  connection.  The  constituents  mentioned  have 
remained  almost  constant  in  kind  and  in  quantity  for  over  2J  years. 
Of  the  constituents  mentioned,  only  the  first  three  cause  the 
water  to  be  hard.  Of  these  three  compounds,  the  softening  process 
removes  only  the  first  two,  i.e.,  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesium. 

Sulphate  of  magnesium,  while  acting  to  some  extent  on  soap, 
does  not  form  any  scale  in  boilers.  In  order  to  remove  it  from 
the  water  it  would  be  necessary  to  add  soda-ash  as  well  as  lime. 
This  would  involve  expense  and  other  objections  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  benefit  gained. 

The  removal  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesium  from 
the  water  eliminates  a  little  over  two-thirds  of  the  hardening 
substances  from  the  water.  As  explained  above,  the  hardening 
substance  which  remains  is  the  least  harmful,  so  that  the  water 
is  in  reality  more  thoroughly  softened  than  would  at  first  appear 
to  be  the  case. 

For  carrying  out  the  softening  process  the  arrangement  is  as 
follows:  The  hard  water  is  delivered  through  a  16-inch  pipe  to  a 
weir-box,  or  measuring  device,  at  a  point  about  30  feet  above  the 
prairie  level.  Here  the  water  divides  automatically  into  two  parts f 
always  in  the  same  ratio  to  each  other.  The  smaller  part  is  mixed 
continuously  with  cream  of  lime  and  made  into  lime-water,  which 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


201 


202 


BOILER-WATERS. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


203 


n n c 


•s     * 
1  1  1 


c 


I 

J 


3 


[ 


[_. 


^4 


f 


2- 


b-i 


8  S 


0     ? 


.t  I 

0)     ~ 

-  o 
x 

§> 


s« 


204  BOILER- WATERS. 

afterwards  mixes  with  the  hard  water  and  softens  it.  As  the  making 
of  the  lime-water  requires  a  little  time,  it  is  so  arranged  that  the 
water  just  starting  to  be  made  into  lime-water  forces  forward  in  a 
constant  stream  to  mix  with  the  hard  water  an  exact  equivalent 
amount  of  lime-water  already  formed.  In  other  words,  the  water 
to  be  made  into  lime-water,  as  soon  as  it  falls  over  the  weir  dis- 
places lime-water  already  made.  Mixed  with  cream  of  lime,  it 
flows  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  lime-water  tanks,  where  it  rises 
steadily  and  clarifies,  and  eventually  flows  forward  to  mix  with 
the  hard  water.  There  is  thus  a  steady  stream  of  clarified  lime- 
water  being  forced  out  of  the  lime-water  tanks  by  the  water  which 
is  entering  below,  and  the  amount  of  this  stream  is  always  pro- 
portional to  the  hard  water  which  it  is  to  soften.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  that  the  lime-water  is  always  of  the  proper  strength. 
Measured  samples  of  lime-water  are  tested  with  a  standard  acid 
solution.  If  found  under  strength,  cream  of  lime  is  supplied  at 
a  higher  rate.  If  found  over  strength,  the  supply  of  cream  of 
lime  is  diminished.  Two  gauges  are  on  the  side  of  the  weir-box- 
One  shows  how  much  hard  water  is  being  pumped  to  the  plant; 
the  other  shows  how  much  cream  of  lime  is  being  used  for  making 
lime-water.  The  amounts  shown  on  the  two  gauges  must  be  kept 
in  a  simple  ratio  to  each  other.  When  this  is  done  very  little  test- 
ing is  required. 

The  apparatus  for  preparing  and  pumping  up  the  lime-cream 
consists  of  a  slaking-bed,  a  mixing-well,  and  a  ball-valve  pump. 
The  speed  of  the  purr^  is  regulated  from  the  operating  platform. 
The  lime-water  is  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  hard  water  in  a 
baffle-channel.  Thence  the  turbid  soft  water  flows  to  the  bottom 
of  two  20'x30'  tanks,  where  it  deposits  nearly  all  of  its  suspended 
matter,  or  sludge.  Rising  slowly  to  the  top,  it  flows  off  through 
floating  discharge-pipes  to  the  filters,  which  give  it  its  final  clarifica- 
tion. The  softened  water  then  flows  to  the  carbonating  box,  where 
it  meets  purified  carbonic-acid  gas  and  absorbs  it.  This  carbo- 
nated water  flows  into  a  300,000-gallon  reservoir,  whence  it  is 
pumped  to  the  city. 

There  are  seven  filters,  each  one  containing  about  1450  square 
feet  of  filter-cloth  surface.  Each  filter  runs  about  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  then  opened  and  the  cloths  are  removed,  washed, 
and  replaced. 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


205 


Sludge  Recovery. — On  account  of  the  high  price  of  good  lime 
in  Winnipeg,  the  recovery  of  the  waste  lime  from  the  softening 
process  is  being  seriously  considered.  This  would  require  a  plant 
for  purifying  the  sludge  by  removing  the  magnesia.  Presses, 
drying  apparatus,  and  special  kilns  would  also  be  needed.  It 

FIG.  61. — Tweeddale  System. — Section  and  Elevation. 

'ir  Compressor  or   Inj'ecror 
~%'5team  Pipe 


Top  Plan. 

FIG.  62.— Tweeddale  System.— Plan. 

would  be  possible,  however,  to  make  high-grade  lime  for  about 
one-third  of  what  it  is  now  costing. 

The  Tweeddale  System,  the  invention  of  the  late  Wm.  Tweed- 
dale,  of  Topeka,  Kan.,  is  of  the  intermittent  type,  and  is  not 
automatic  in  its  action,  which  features  are  said  by  its  makers  to 


206 


BOILER-WATERS. 


conduce  to  greater  efficiency  and  likewise  uniformity  in  results 
obtained.  The  process  requires  no  pumps  or  machinery  and  needs 
a  small  amount  of  attention  in  every  six  hours  when  introducing 
the  chemical  solution  and  putting  the  aerating  jets  in  action.  The 
construction  and  arrangement  are  shown  by  Fig.  61.  Two  wooden 
tanks  are  used  for  treating  purposes,  while  the  other  is  pumped 
from  or  running  to  supply.  Each  holds  6  to  8  hours'  supply;  two 
50,000-gallon  tanks  are  used  for  a  2000  horse-power  boiler  capacity. 
Raw  water  enters  the  bottom  of  tank  and  passes  to  a  filtering- 
chamber  filled  with  coke  and  iron,  then  through  4  radial  pipes 
with  curved  ends.  When  the  tank  is  nearly  full,  air  at  45  pounds 
pressure  is  forced  through  radial  arms  and  a  J-inch  hole  in  the 
top  (air  may  be  supplied  by  compressor  or  steam- jet),  which 
causes  violent  agitation  of  the  water,  and  volatile  and  organic 
matter  is  said  to  be  removed.  After  5  minutes  chemical  reagents 
are  poured  in  and  agitated  15  minutes,  then  coagulant  is  added 
and  1  .to  2  hours  allowed  for  sedimentation.  The  sludge  is  allowed 
to  accumulate  to  5  or  6  inches  in  thickness,  when  it  is  washed  out 
— say  once  in  two  or  three  weeks.  It  is  also  claimed  that  the 
stirring  of  the  sludge  by  the  air  aids  the  settling.  Treated  water 
is  removed  from  the  top  by  means  of  a  floating  or  swinging  pipe 
fitted  with  a  float.  For  railway  plants  this  system  uses  one  treat- 
ing-tank  only,  the  place  of  a  second  tank  being  taken  by  the  rail- 
way regular  supply-tank,  into  which  the  treated  water  is  pumped 
after  each  batch  of  water  has  been  purified. 

Water  at  Topeka,  Kan.,  Edison  Illuminating  Company's  Sta- 
tion treated  by  this  process  gave  results  as  follows: 


Grains  per  Gallon. 

Before. 

After. 

Carbonate  of  lime          

17.20 

10.05 
15.26 
0.00 
0.56 
4.42 
0.00 
3.03 
20.33 

2.23 
1.45 
0.00 
0.51 
0.00 
0.61 
0.09 
0.00 
21.51 

'  '  magnesia  
Sulphate  of  lime 

"         "  magnesia  
"         "  iron     

Silica        

Oxide  of  iron 

Organic  matter             

Alkali  solids          

Total  solids  

70.85 
50.52 

26.40 
4.89 

Total  incrusting  solids.  .  .  . 

WATER-SOFTENING. 


207 


In  the  Scaife  System  the  feed-water  first  enters  the  heater, 
when  it  is  heated  to  200-210°  F.  A  portion  of  the  free  car- 
bonic acid  is  driven  off  by  the  heat;  the  bicarbonates  of  calcium 
and  magnesia  are  precipitated  as  carbonates  of  these  elements, 
the  precipitation  taking  place  on  the  heater  trays  or  pans.  A 
pump  forces  this  hot  water  into  a  precipitating-tank,  where  the 
chemicals  are  introduced  by  means  of  two  small  pumps.  Some- 
times these  chemicals  are  introduced  into  the  feed-water  on  its 
way  to  the  precipitation-tank.  The  scale-forming  substances  which 


FIG.  63. — The  Scaife  System. 

are  precipitated  in  this  tank  sink  to  the  bottom,  from  whence  they 
are  removed.  Lighter  substances  pass  on  to  the  filters,  which 
remove  all  suspended  matter  and  gaseous  or  foul  odors. 

This  system  can  be  used  with  the  closed  type  of  heater,  but  in 
that  event  less  of  the  carbonic  acid  can  be  removed  than  is  the 
case  with  the  open  heater,  which  is  to  be  preferred  for  use  in  con- 
nection with  this  system. 

A  system  extensively  used  abroad  and  controlled  here  by  its 
inventor,  Mr.  Halvor  Breda,  of  Berlin,  Germany,  known  as  the 
Breda  System,  employs  as  chemical  reagents  slaked  lime  and  soda. 


208 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Its  distinctive  feature,  however,  is  in  the  heating  of  all  water 
before  treatment.  Other  features  are  automatic  control  of  the 
flow  of  chemical  solutions,  design  of  lime-water  saturator,  and 
the  independent  mechanical  filter.  One  of  these  plants,  with  a 
capacity  of  1050  gallons  per  day,  is  installed  at  the  factory  of 
Wm.  Demuth  &  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


FIG.   64. — The  We-fu-go  Continuous  System. 

All  the  water  enters  the  top  of  the  distributor  (Figs.  67,  68, 
and  69),  when  it  is  broken  up  by  a  perforated  plate  and  sent  its 
several  ways.  From  the  bottom  of  the  water-heater  and  the  top 
of  the  lime-saturator  it  goes  to  the  central  mixing  compartment 
of  settling-tank.  The  chemically  charged  water  now  goes  to  bot- 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


209 


FIG.  65. — Sludge  and  Old  Scale  from  Boilers  Using  Water  from 
Scaife  Softener. 


FIG.  66. — Section  Through  Filter  of  Breda  System. 


210 


BOILER-WATERS. 


torn  of  settling- tank,  then  slowly  up  the  outer  clearing  compart- 
ment, over  a  notched  circular  collecting-weir,  and  through  pipe  to 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 
FIGS.  67,  68,  and  69. — Breda  System  of  Water  Softening. 

filter.  By  means  of  a  tilting-basin,  a  soda  solution  is  discharged 
five  or  six  times  per  minute  into  the  lime-tank.  The  filter  is  a 
fine  gravel,  mechanical-type  filter  (Fig.  66). 


WATER-SOFTENING. 


211 


The  Bruun-Lowener  Water-softener  (Figs.  70  and  71),  manu- 
factured by  the  American  Water  Softener  Co.,  Philadephia,  Pa., 
is  one  of  the  automatic  type,  requiring  no  motive  power;  it  is  also 

FIG.  70. — Bruun-Lowener  Softener 

A. 


FIG.  71. — Bruun-Lowener  Softener. 

one  in  which  the  relative  proportion  of  chemicals  to  crude  water 
remains  the  same  at  all  times. 

The  apparatus  is  entirely  self-contained.     Crude  water  enters 


212  BOILER-WATERS. 

one  of  the  chambers  of  the  oscillating  receiver  C  through  the 
pipe  K.  A  semi-circular  tank  D  above  C  contains  the  chemicals, 
soda-ash,  and  lime;  a  valve  in  the  bottom  of  D  allows  the  chemi- 
cals to  fall  into  the  chamber  of  C,  the  oscillating  receiver.  The 
oscillation  of  this  receiver  by  means  of  levers  actuates  the  valve- 
outlet  in  D.  The  levers  are  provided  with  means  of  regulation  of 
a  quantity  of  chemicals.  When  one  chamber  of  receiver  C  is 
filled,  its  center  of  gravity  changes  and  the  receiver  tips  and 
empties  the  water  into  the  mixing-tank  below,  at  the  same  time 
the  other  chamber  is  brought  under  the  outlet  of  inlet-pipe  K', 
when  it  fills  the  same  operation  is  gone  through  with. 

The  lime-mi  k  used  in  this  system  is  of  10  per  cent  strength; 
this  is  kept  in  constant  motion  by  an  agitator  operated  from  oscil- 
lating receiver  C.  A  plate  $  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  receiver 
C  keeps  water  and  chemicals  in  mixing-tank  B  in  motion.  The 
mixture  then  passes  to  a  heating-chamber  H,  where  it  is  heated 
to,  say,  140°  F.,  to  encourage  precipitation  of  some  scale-forming 
materials. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  soften  the  water  while  cold,  a  larger 
settling-tank  is  required.  The  water  runs  from  heating-chamber 
through  by-pass  G  into  settling-tank  A,  where  precipitation  is 
effected.  Tefore  the  water  leaves  the  softener  it  passes  through 
the  filter  I,  made  of  excelsior  tightly  packed  between  two  rows  o^ 
wooden  bars,  after  which  it  runs  to  storage- tank  0  and  is  drawn 
off  as  required  from  pipe  L.  A  ball  valve  P  on  pipe  K  regulates 
the  flow  of  water  to  the  oscillating  receiver  C. 

Water  for  Locomotives.* — The  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St. 
Paul  R.R.  experimented  for  many  years  (1900)  upon  water  for 
locomotives,  and  their  chemists  obtained  results  as  follows. 

Varieties  of  water  may  be  classified  by  either  of  two 
methods : 

1.  By  their  chemical  composition. 

2.  By  their  effect  in  use. 

The  second  (2)  is  what  interests  steam  users  most. 
In  the  first  class  (1)  are  placed 

a.  Alkaline  waters. 

b.  Non-alkaline,  bad  and  good. 

*  Stillman's  Engrg.  Chemistry. 


WATER-SOFTENING.  213 

In  the  second  class  (2) 

a.  Those  causing  foaming  and  corrosion  but  non-crusting. 

6.  Hard  or  incrusting. 

c.  Soft,  non-alkaline  and  good. 

These  two  classes  are  related  in  this  wise:  a  of  class  1," alkaline" 
waters  will  produce  the  trouble  mentioned  in  a  of  class  2;  that 
is  foaming,  and  in  certain  cases  corrosion. 

It  is,  however,  impossible  to  set  hard  and  fast  limits  for  each 
class,  one  merging  into  the  other,  and  what  would  be  considered 
good  water  in  the  West  might  be  thought  bad  in  the  East. 

In  the  non-incrusting  group  is  formed  a  variety  of  actions. 
A  well-known  property  of  alkali  in  water  is  to  cause  foaming  and 
priming  when  sudden  reduction  of  pressure  occurs  upon  opening 
the  throttle.  The  point  at  which  this  action  begins  to  be  apparent 
depends  upon  a  number  of  circumstances. 

With  a  boiler  overworked  and  foul  from  mud  it  appears  sooner 
than  in  one  having  ample  heating-surface  with  moderate  train  load, 
uniform  resistance  and  consequent  regular  consumption  of  steam. 

With  the  non-incrusting  salts  are  associated  a  few  that  are 
readily  decomposed  in  contact  with  iron  and  attack  it,  causing 
gradual  corrosion. 

These  are  usually  magnesium  chlorides  and  sulphates,  a  very 
small  amount  of  which,  say  10  grains  per  gallon,  should  condemn 
the  water. 

Organic  matter  is  supposed  also  to  have  this  corrosive  action, 
but  in  the  presence  of  alkali  the  danger  is  not  great  and  with 
frequent  blowing  out  but  little  attention  need  be  given  it. 

The  water  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1  to  10  grains  of  solids  per  gallon  soft  water. 
10  "  20      "       ?'      "       "        "      moderately  hard  water. 
Above  25      "       "      "       "        "      very  hard  water. 

"Boiler  compounds"  are  used  by  this  railroad  company.  Total 
alkali,  including  that  in  the  " compound/'  is  kept  under  50  grains 
per  gallon  or  trouble  is  liable  to  happen  from  foaming. 

This  "  compound"  is  one  part  caustic  soda  and  one-half  part 
sodium  carbonate.  This  water  is  surface  water,  in  the  forest 
region  of  Wisconsin  at  Wauvau. 


214 


BOILER-WATERS. 


Grains  per  Gallon. 

(Oxide  of  iron.    . 0 . 23 
Calcium  carbonate 2 . 26 
' '        sulphate 0 . 46 

Total 2.95 

Non-incrusting  matter.   {  ^gamc  an?  volatile 3'15 

1  Alkaline  chlorides 0.68 

Total 3.83 

Total  residue,  solid 6 . 78 

A  Very  Bad  Boiler  Feed-water. — The  following  is  a  non- 
alkaline,  badly  incrusting  water  from  Lenox  Creek,  Dakota: 

Grains  per  Gallon. 

Incrusting  matter.  .    .  .  (  Calcium  c^bonate 40 . 31 

(  Magnesium  carbonate.  . .       7.17 

Total 47.48 

f  Organic  and  volatile.  ...     14.34 

Non-incrusting  matter,  -j  Magnesium  sulphate.  ...     46.07 
i-  Alkaline  chlorides 1 . 31 

Total 61 . 72 

Total  residue,  solid 109 .20 

This  water  is  a  difficult  one  to  purify  and  soften,  and  is  also 
high  in  organic  matter. 

We  now  give  examples  of  an  artesian  well-water  that  is  worth- 
less for  boiler-feed  purposes: 

M.  N. 

f  Calcium  carbonate 61 . 85  180 . 00 

Incrusting  matter j        "        sulphate 41 .44  35.46 

I  Oxides 5.00 

Total 103.29      220.46 

f  Alkaline  sulphates 64 . 83  150 . 92 

Non-incrusting  matter.                     chlorides     13.94  1.14 

Magnesium  sulphate 20 . 90 

[  Organic  and  volatile 23 . 42 

Total 78.77      196.38 

Total  residue,  solid.  182 .06      416 . 84 


M  is  from  Kimball,  Dakota. 

N  is  from  a  130-foot  well  at  Fargo,  N.  Dak. 


WATER-SOFTENING.  215 

On  the  western  divisions  of  this  road  frequency  of  washing-out 
boilers  is  increased,  doing  so  as  often  as  once  in  300  to  400 
miles  run.  Hot  water  is  always  used,  and  the  boiler  is  filled  again 
with  hot  water — a  very  good  practice.  Fully  75  per  cent  of  the 
number  of  cracked  fire-box  sheets  are  saved  by  this  practice  alone, 
and,  of  course,  repairs  are  reduced  and  mileage  of  locomotive  in- 
creased. 

A  water-softener  producing  30,000  pounds  of  water  per  hour 
for  locomotive  feeding  actually  saved  in  fuel  5  tons  of  coal  per 
week  at  $5  per  ton;  it  also  saved  $750  repairs  in  six  months. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Maw  gives  as  an  advantage  of  water-softening  the 
ability  to  use  "a  pure  water  and  to  use  boilers  of  the  locomotive, 
multi-tubular  and  water-tube  types."  This  advantage  he  considers 
as  outweighing  any  question  of  the  cost  of  softening.  Filtration 
has  been  found  to  be  most  satisfactorily  carried  out  when  the 
filters  were  operated  under  atmospheric  pressure.  When  working 
under  pressure  filters  are  liable  to  get  choked,  then  the  water 
penetrates  the  mass  at  the  point  of  least  resistance,  and  when  the 
current  of  water  is  reversed  for  purposes  of  washing  the  same  set 
of  happenings  are  found. 

Stromeyer  and  Barren  are  agreed  that  filters  do  not  remove 
all  the  precipitated  carbonate  of  lime  in  softening  apparatus. 

In  one  case  a  6-inch  diameter  pipe  conveyed  9000  gallons  of 
water  per  hour  on  a  cold-water  service.  This  pipe  soon  had  but  a 
3-inch  diameter  hole  left  in  it  from  carbonate  of  lime  incrusting 
the  metal. 

Mr.  Wm.  Brown,  of  Siemens  Bros.  &  Co.,  says,  that  with 
feed-waters  worked  with  exhaust  steam,  distributed  zig-zag  trays, 
so  placed  that  a  great  deal  of  surface  of  the  water  was  acted  on 
by  the  steam  and  from  which  water  was  fed  to  the  boilers  at 
nearly  steam  temperature,  they  collected  2200  pounds  of  dry 
powder  (calcium  carbonate)  for  2,600,000  English  gallons  of 
water  (26,000,000  pounds)  passed  through  between  the  clean- 
ings. 

Chipping  and  scraping  of  each  boiler  was  thus  delayed  from  a 
seven- week  period  to  a  twenty-one-week  period,  merely  brushing 
them  out  at  seven  and  fourteen  weeks. 

Water-softening  by  Boiling. — Tests  to  soften  water  by  boil- 
ing under  pressure,  made  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Nicholas 


216  BOILER-WATERS 

Knight,*  show  that  the  precipitation  of  calcium  carbonate  is 
the  same,  whether  water  is  boiled  under  normal  atmospheric 
pressure  or  under  a  pressure  of  six  or  seven  atmospheres. 

Precipitation  of  magnesium  carbonate  is  increased  at  the 
greater  pressure. 

Lime-water,  6  to  1,  removes  71.42  per  cent  of  temporary  hard- 
ness, while  boiling  under  pressure  removes  only  63.5  per  cent. 

*Eng.  News,  Vol.  53,  p.  311. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TABLES. 

TABLE  I.* 

CONVERSION    OF    MILLIGRAMMES    PER    KILOGRAMME    INTO    GRAINS 

PER   U.    S.    GALLON   OF  231    CUBIC  INCHES. 

One  U.  S.  gallon  of  pure  water  at  60°  F.,  weighed  in  air  at  60°  F.,  at 
atmospheric  pressure  of  30  inches  of  mercury,  weighs  58,334.94640743  grains.f 


Parts  per 
Million. 

Grains  per 
U.  S.  Gallon. 

Parts  per 
Million. 

Grains  per 
U.  S.  Gallon. 

Parts  per 
Million. 

Grains  per 
U.  S.  Gallon. 

1 

0.058335 

36 

2.100058 

71 

4.141781 

2 

0.116670 

37 

2.158393 

72 

4.200116 

3 

0.175005 

38 

2.216728 

73 

4.258451 

4 

0  .  233340 

39 

2.275063 

74 

4.316786 

5 

0.291675 

40 

2.333398 

75 

4.375121 

6 

0.350010 

41 

2.391733 

76 

4.433456 

7 

0.408344 

42 

2.450068 

77 

4.491791 

8 

0.466679 

43 

2  .  508402 

78 

4.550126 

9 

0.525014 

44 

2.566737 

79 

4.608461 

10 

0.583349 

45 

2.625072 

80 

4.666796 

11 

0.641684 

46 

2.683407 

81 

4.725130 

12 

0.700019 

47 

2.741742 

82 

4.783465 

13 

0  .  758354 

48 

2.800077 

83 

4.841800 

14 

0.816689 

49 

2.858412 

84 

4.900135 

15 

0.875024 

50 

2.916747 

85 

4.958470 

16 

0.933359 

51 

2.975082 

86 

5.016805 

17 

0.991694 

52 

3.033417 

87 

5.075140 

18 

1.050029 

53 

3.091752 

88 

5.133475 

19 

1  .  108364 

54 

3.150087 

89 

5.191810 

20 

1.166699 

55 

3.208422 

90 

5.250145 

21 

1.225034 

56 

3.266757 

91 

5.308480 

22 

.  283369 

57 

3.325092 

92 

5.366815 

23 

.341704 

58 

3.383427 

93 

5.425150 

24 

.  400039 

59 

3.441762 

94 

5.483485 

25 

.458373 

GO 

3  .  500097 

95 

5.541820 

26 

.516708 

61 

3  558432 

96 

5.600155 

27 

.575043 

62 

3.616766 

97 

5.658490 

28 

.633378 

C3 

3.675101 

98 

5.716825 

29 

.691713 

64 

3.733436 

99 

5.775159 

30 

.750048 

G5 

3.791771 

100 

5.833494 

31 

.808383 

66 

3.850106 

32 

.866718 

67 

3.908441 

33 

.925053 

68 

3.966776 

34 

1.983388 

09 

4.025111 

35 

2.041723 

70 

4.083446 

*  Examination  of  Water.     Wm.  P.  Mason 
t  See  article  by  Mason  on  "  The  U  S.  Gallon 


in  Am.  Druggist,  January,  1888. 
217 


218 


BOILER-WATERS. 


TABLE  II. 

SAVING    FROM   HEATING    FEED-WATER. 


II 

Temperature  of  Water  Entering  Boiler. 

£ 

•as 

IB 

•S& 

120° 

130° 

140° 

150° 

160° 

170° 

180° 

190° 

200° 

210° 

220° 

250° 

35° 

7.24 

8.09 

8.95 

9.89 

10.66 

11.52 

12.38 

13.24 

14.09 

14.95 

15.81 

19.40 

40° 

3.84 

7.69 

8.56 

9.42 

10.28 

11.14 

12.00 

12.87 

13.73 

14.59 

15.45 

18.89 

45° 

6.44 

7.30 

8.16 

9.03 

9.90 

10.76 

11.62 

12.49 

13.36 

14.22 

15.09 

18.37 

50° 

3.03 

8.89 

7.76 

8.64 

9.51 

10.38 

11.24 

12.11 

12.98 

13.85 

14.72 

17.87 

55° 

5.63 

3.49 

7.37 

8.24 

9.11 

9.99 

10.85 

11.73 

12.60 

13.48 

14.35 

17.38 

60° 

5.21 

3.08 

6.96 

7.84 

8'.  72 

9.60 

10.47 

11.34 

12.22 

13.10 

13.98 

16.86 

65° 

4.80 

5.67 

6.56 

7.44 

8.32 

9.20 

10.08 

10.  9C 

11.84 

12.72 

13.60 

16.35 

70° 

4.38 

5.26 

6.15 

7.03 

7.92 

8.80 

9.68 

10.57 

11.45 

12.34 

13.22 

15.84 

75° 

3.9" 

4.84 

5.73 

^.62 

7.51 

8.40 

9.28 

10.17 

11.  Of 

11.95 

12.84 

15.33 

80° 

3.54 

4.42 

5.32 

6.21 

7.11 

8.00 

8.88 

9.78 

10.67 

11.57 

12.  4e 

14.82 

85° 

3.11 

4.00 

4.90 

5.80 

6.70 

7.59 

8.48 

9.38 

10.28 

11.18 

12.07 

14.32 

90° 

2.68 

3  58 

4.48 

5.38 

6.28 

7.18 

8.07 

8.98 

9.88 

10.78 

11.68 

13.81 

95° 

2  25 

3.15 

4.05 

4.9" 

5.86 

6.77 

7.66 

8.57 

9.47 

10.38 

11.29 

13.31 

100° 

1.81 

2.7] 

3.62 

4.53 

5.44 

6.35 

7.25 

s.ie 

9.07 

9.98 

10.88 

12.80 

TABLES. 


219 


TABLE  III. 

FACTORS   OF   EVAPORATION. 


Temp,  of 
Feed. 

Gauge  Pressure,  Pounds. 

0 

10 

20 

30     40 

45 

50 

52 

54 

212°  F. 

1.0003 

1.0088 

1.0149  1.0197  1.0237 

1.0254 

1.0271 

1.0277 

1.0283 

209 

1.0035 

1.0120 

1.0180J  1.0228  1.0268 

1.0286 

1.0302 

1.0309 

1.0315 

206 

1.0066 

1.0151 

1.0212 

1.0260  1.0299 

1.0317 

1.0334 

1  .0340 

1.0346- 

203 

1.0098 

1.0183 

1.0243 

1.0291  1.0331 

1.0349 

1.0365 

1.0372 

1.0378 

200 

1.0129 

1.0214  1.0275 

1.0323  1.0362 

1.0380 

1.0397 

1.0403 

1.0409 

197 

1.0160 

1.0246 

1.0306 

1.0344 

1.0394 

1.0412 

1.0428 

1.0434  1.0441 

194 

1.0192 

1.0277 

1.0338 

1.0385 

1.0425 

1.0443 

1.0460 

1.0466  1.0472 

191 

1.0223 

1.0308 

1.0369 

1.0417 

1.0457 

1.0474 

1.0491 

1.0497  1.0503 

188 

1.0255 

1.0340 

1.0400 

1.0448 

1.0488 

1.0506 

1.0522 

1.0528  1.0535 

185 

1.0286 

1.0371 

1.0432 

1.0480 

1.0519 

1.0537 

1.0554 

1.0560  1.0566 

182 

1.0317 

1.0403 

1.0463 

1.0511 

1.0551 

1.0568 

1.0585 

1.0591  1.0598 

179 

1.0349  1.0434 

1.0495 

1.0542 

1.0582 

1.0600 

1.0616 

1.0623  1.0629 

176 

1.0380  1.0465 

1.0526 

1.0574 

1.0613 

1.0631 

1.0648 

1.0654  1.0660 

173 

1.0411 

1.0497 

1.0557 

1.0605 

1.0645 

1.0663 

1.0679 

1.0685  1.0692 

170 

1.0443 

1.0528 

1.0589 

1.0636 

1.0676 

1.0694 

1.0710 

1.0717  1.0723 

167 

1.0474 

1.0559 

1.0620!  1.0668 

1.0707 

1.0725 

1.0742 

1.0748  1.0754 

164 

1.0505 

1.0591 

1.0651 

1.0699 

1.0739 

1.0756 

1.0773 

1.0780  1.0786 

161 

1.0537 

1.0622 

1.0682 

1.0730 

1.0770 

1.0788 

1.0804 

1.0811  1.0817 

158 

1.0568 

1.0653 

1.0714 

1.0762 

1.0801 

1.0819 

1.0836 

1.0842  1.0848 

155 

1.0599 

1.0684 

1.0745 

1.0793 

1.0833 

1.0850 

1.0867 

1.0873  1.0880 

152 

1.0631 

1.0716 

1.0776 

1.0824 

1.0864 

1.0882 

1.0898 

1.0905  1.0911 

149      1.0662 

1.0747 

1.0808 

1.0855 

1.0895 

1.0913 

1.0930 

1.0936  1.0942 

146      1.0693 

1.0778 

1.0839 

1.0887 

1.0926 

1.0944 

1.0961 

1.1967  1.0973 

143      1.0724 

1.0810 

1.0870 

1.0918 

1.0958 

1.0975 

1.0992 

1.0998  1.1005 

140 

1.0756 

1.0841 

1.0901 

1.0949  1.0989 

1  .  1007 

1.1023 

1.1030  1.103ft 

137 

1.0787 

1.0872 

1.0933 

1.0980 

1  .  1020 

1.1038 

1.1055 

1.1061  1.1067 

134 

1.0818 

1.0903 

1.0964 

1.1012 

1.1051 

1.1069 

1.1086 

1.1092  1.1098- 

131 

1.0849 

1.0934 

1.0995 

1  .  1043 

1  .  1083 

1.1100 

1.1117 

1.1123 

1.1130- 

128 

1.0881 

1.0966 

1  .  1026 

1  .  1074 

1.1114 

1.1132 

1.1148 

1  .  1  155 

1.1161 

125 

1.0912 

1.0997 

1  .  1057 

1.1105 

1.1145 

1.1163 

1.1179 

1.1186 

1.1192 

122 

1.0943 

1  .  1028 

1  .  1089 

1.1136 

1.1176 

1.1194 

1.1211 

1.1217 

1.1223 

119 

1.0974 

1  .  1059 

1.1120 

1.1168 

1.1207 

1.1225 

1.1242 

1.1248 

1  .  1254 

116 

1  .  1005 

1.1090 

1.1151 

1.1199 

1  .  1239 

1.1256 

1.1273  1.1279 

1.1286 

113 

1  .  1036 

1.1122 

1.1182 

1.1230 

1.1270 

1.1288 

1.1304  1.1310 

1.1317 

110 

1.1068 

1.1153 

1.1213 

1.1261 

1.1301 

1.1319 

1.1335  1.1342 

1.1348 

107 

1  .  1099 

1.1184 

1  .  1245 

1.1292 

1  .  1332 

1.1350 

1.1366  1.1373 

1.1379 

104 

1.1130 

1.1215 

1.1276 

1  .  1323 

1.1363 

1.1381 

1.1398  1.1404 

1.1410 

101 

1.1161 

1  .  1246 

1.1307 

1.1355 

1.1394 

1.1412 

1.1429  1.1435 

1.1441 

98 

1.1192 

1  .  1277 

1  .  1338 

1.1386 

1.1426 

1.1443 

1.1460  1.1466 

1.1473 

96 

1.1223 

1.1309 

1.1369 

1.1417 

1.1457 

1.1475 

1.1491  1.1497 

1.1504 

92 

1.1255 

1.1340 

1.1400 

1  .  1448 

1.1488 

1.1506 

1.1522  1.1529 

1  .  1535 

89 

1  .  1286 

1.1371 

1.1431 

1.1479 

1.1519 

1.1537 

1.1553  1.1560 

1  .  1566 

86 

1.1317 

1.1402 

1.1463 

1.1510 

1.1550 

1.1568 

1.1584  1.1591 

1.1597 

83 

1.1348 

1.1433 

1.1494 

1.1541 

1.158 

1.1599 

1.1616  1.1622 

1.1628 

80 

1.1379 

1.1464 

1  .  1525 

1.1573 

1.1612 

1.1630 

1.1647  1.1653 

1.1659 

77 

1.1410 

1.1495 

1.1556 

1.1604 

1.1644 

1.1661 

1.1678  1.1684 

1.1690 

74 

1.1441 

1  .  1526 

1  .  1587 

1.1635 

1.1675 

1  .  1692 

1.1709  1.1715 

1.1722 

71 

1.1472 

1.1558 

1.1618 

1.1666 

1.1706 

1.1723 

1.1740  1.1746 

1.1753 

68 

1  .  1504 

1  .  1589 

1  .  164S 

1.1697 

1.1737 

1.1755 

1.1771  1.1778 

1.1784 

65 

1  .  1535 

1.1620 

1  .  168C 

1.1728 

1.1768 

1.1786 

1.1802  1.1809 

1.1815 

62 

1.1566 

1.1651 

1.1711 

1.1759 

1.1799 

1.1817 

1.1833  1.1840 

1.1846 

59 

1  .  1597 

1.1682 

1.1742 

1.1790 

1.1830 

1.1848 

1.1864  1.1871 

1.1877 

56 

1.1628 

1.1713 

1.1774 

1.1821 

1.1861 

1.1879 

1.1896  1.1902 

1.1908 

53 

1.1659 

1.1744 

1.1806 

1  .  1852 

1  .  1892 

1.1910 

1.1927  1.1933 

1.1939 

50 

1.1690 

1.1775 

1.1836  1.1884 

1.1923 

1.1941 

1.1958 

1  .  1964 

1.1970 

47 

1.1721 

1.1806 

1.1867  1.1915 

1.1954 

1.1972 

1.1989 

1.1995 

1.2001 

44 

1.1752 

1.1837 

1.1898  1.1946,  1.1986 

1.2003 

1.2020 

1.2026 

1.2032 

41 

1.1783 

1.1868 

1.1929  1.1977  1.2017 

1.2034 

1.2051 

1.2057 

1.2064 

38      1.1814 

1.190C 

1.1960  1.2008  1.2048 

1.2065 

1.2082 

1.2088 

1.2095 

35      1.1845 

1.1931 

1.1991  1.2039  1.2079 

1.2096 

1.2113 

1.2119 

1.2126 

32      1.1876 

1  .  1962 

1.2022 

1.2070 

1.2110 

1.2128 

1.2144 

1.2151 

1.2157 

220 


BOILER-WATERS. 


FACTORS   OF   EVAPORATION — Continued. 


Temp. 

Gauge  Pressure,  Pounds. 

of 
Feed. 

56 

58 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

212°  F. 

1.0290 

1.0295 

.0301 

1.0315 

1.0329 

.0341 

.0353 

.0365 

1.0376  1.0387 

209 

1.0321 

1.0327 

.0333 

1.0346 

1.0360 

.0372 

.0385 

.0397 

1.0408  1.0419 

206 

1.0352 

1.0358 

.0364 

1.0378 

1.0391 

.0403 

.0416 

.0428 

1.0439  1.0450 

203 

1.0384 

1.0390 

.0396 

.0410 

1.0423 

.0435 

.0448 

.0460 

.0471  1.0482 

200 

1.0415 

1.0421 

.0427 

.0441 

1.0454 

.0466 

.0479 

.0491 

.0502  1.0513 

197 

1.0447 

1.0453 

.0458 

.0477 

1.0486 

.0498 

.0511 

1.0522 

.0533  1.0544 

194 

1.0478 

.0484 

.0490 

.0504 

.0517 

.0529 

.0542 

1.0553 

.0565  1.0576 

191 

.0510 

.0515 

.0521 

.0535 

.0549 

.0561 

.0573 

1.0585 

.0596,  1.0607 

188 

.0541 

.0547 

.0553 

.0566 

.0580 

.0592 

.0605 

1.0616 

1.0628,  1.0639 

185 

.0572 

.0578 

.0584 

.0598 

.0611 

.0623 

.0636 

1.0648 

1.0659  1.0670 

182 

.0604 

.0610 

.0615 

.0629 

.0643 

.0655 

.0668 

1.0679 

1.0690 

1.0701 

179 

.0635 

.0641 

.0647 

.0660 

.0674 

.0686 

.0699 

1.0710 

.0722 

1.0733 

176 

.0666 

.0672 

.0678 

.0692 

.0705 

.0717 

.0730 

.0742 

1.0753 

1.0764 

173 

.0698 

.0704 

.0709 

.0723 

1.0737 

.0749 

1.0762 

.0773 

1.0784 

1.0795 

170 

.0729 

.0735 

.0741 

.0754 

1.0768 

.0780 

1.0793 

.0804 

1.0816 

.0827 

167 

.0760 

.0766 

.0772 

.0786 

1.0799 

.0811 

1.0824 

.0336 

1.0847 

.0858 

164 

.0792 

.0798 

.0803 

.0817 

1.0831 

.0843 

1.0856 

.08G7 

.0878 

.0889 

161 

.0823 

.0329 

.0835 

.0848 

1.0862 

.0874 

1.0887 

.0898 

.0910 

.0921 

158 

.0854 

.0860 

.0866 

.0880 

1.0893 

.0905 

1.0918 

.0929 

.0941 

.0952 

155 

.0886 

.0892 

.0897 

.0911 

1.0925 

.0937 

1.0949 

.0961 

.0972 

.0983 

152 

.0917 

.0923 

.0929 

.0942 

.0956 

1.0968 

.0981 

.0992 

.1004 

.1015 

149 

1.0948 

.0954 

.0960 

.0974 

.0987 

1.0999 

.1012 

.  1023 

.  1035 

.1046 

146 

1.0979 

1.0985 

.0991 

.1005 

.1018 

1.1030 

.1043 

.1055 

.1066 

.1077 

143 

1.1011 

1.1017 

.1022 

.1036 

.1050 

1.1062 

.1074 

.1036 

.1097 

.1108 

140 

1.1042 

1.1048 

.1054 

.1067 

.1081 

1.1093 

.1106 

.1117 

.1129 

.1140 

137 

1  .  1073 

1.1079 

.  1085 

.1099 

.1112 

1.1124 

.1137 

.1148 

.1160 

.1171 

134 

1.1104 

1.1110 

.1116 

.1130 

.1143 

.1155 

.1168 

.1180 

.1191 

.1202 

131 

1.1136 

1.1142 

.1147 

.1161 

.1175 

.1187 

.1199 

.1210 

.1222 

.1233 

126 

1.1167 

1.1173 

.1179 

.1192 

.  1206 

.1218 

.1231 

.1242 

.1253 

.1264 

125 

1.1198 

1.1204 

.1210 

.1223 

.1237 

.1249 

.1262 

1.1273 

.1285 

.1296 

122 

1  .  1229 

1.1235 

.1241 

.1255 

.1268 

.1280 

.1293 

1.1294 

.1316 

.1327 

119 

1  .  1260 

1.1266 

.1272 

.1286 

.1299 

1.1311 

.1324 

1.1336 

.1347 

.1358 

116 

1.1292 

1.1298 

.1303 

.1317 

.1331 

1.1343 

.1355 

1.1366 

.1378 

.1389 

113 

1.1323 

1.1329 

.1334 

.1348 

.1362 

1.1374 

.1387 

1.1398 

.1409 

.1420 

110 

1.1354 

1  .  1360 

.1366 

.1374 

.1393 

1.1405 

.1418 

1.1429 

.1441 

.1452 

107 

1.1385 

1.1391 

.1397 

.1411 

.1424 

1.1436 

.1449 

1.1460 

.1472 

.1483 

104 

1.1416 

1.1422 

.1428 

.1442 

.1455 

1.1467 

.1480 

1.1491 

.1503 

1.1514 

101 

1  .  1447 

1.1453 

.1459 

.1473 

.1436 

1.1498 

.1511 

.1523 

.1534 

1.1545 

98 

1.1479 

1.1485 

.1490 

.1504 

.1518 

1  .  1530 

.1542 

.1554 

.1565 

1.1576 

95 

1.1510 

1.1516 

.1521 

.1535 

.1549 

1.1561 

.1574 

.  1583 

.1596 

1.1607 

92 

1.1541 

1.1547 

.1553 

.1566 

.1580 

1.1592 

.1605 

.1616 

.1628 

1.1639 

89 

1.1572 

1.1578 

.1584 

.1598 

.1611 

1.1623 

.1636 

.1647 

.1659 

1.1670 

86 

1.1603 

1.1609 

.1615 

.1629 

.1642 

1.1654 

.1667 

.1678 

.1690 

.1701 

83 

1.1634 

1  .  1640 

.1646 

.1660 

.1673 

1.1685 

.1698 

.1709 

.1721 

.1732 

80 

1.1665 

1.1671 

.1677 

.1691 

.1704 

1.1716 

.1729 

.1741 

.1752 

.1763 

77 

1.1696 

1.1702 

.1708 

.1722 

.1735 

1.1747 

.1760 

.1772 

.1783 

.1794 

74 

1.1728 

1.1734 

.1739 

1.1753 

.1767 

.1779 

.1791 

.1803 

.1814 

.1825 

71 

1.1759 

1.1765 

.1770 

1.1784 

.1798 

.1810 

.1823 

.  1834 

.1845 

.1856 

68 

1.1790 

1.1796 

.1802 

1.1815 

.1829 

.1841 

.1854 

.1865 

.1877 

.1888 

65 

1.1821 

1.1827 

.1833 

1.1846 

.1860 

.1872 

.1885 

.1896 

.1908 

.1919 

62 

1.1852 

1.1858 

.1864 

1.1877 

.1891 

.1903 

.1916 

.1927 

.1939 

.1950 

59 

1.1883 

1  .  1889 

.1895 

1  .  1909 

.1922 

.1934 

.1947 

1.1958 

.1970 

.1981 

56 

1.1914 

1  .  1920 

.1926 

1.1940 

.1953 

.1965 

.1978 

1.1989 

.2001 

.2012 

53 

1.1945 

1.1951 

.1957 

1.1971 

.1984 

.1996 

.2009 

1.2020 

.2032 

.2043 

50 

1.1976 

1.1982 

1.1988 

.2002 

.2015 

.2027 

.2040 

1.2052 

.2063 

.2074 

47 

1.2007 

1.2013 

1.2019 

1.2033 

.2046 

.2058 

.2071 

1.2083 

.2094 

.2105 

44 

1.2039 

1.2044 

1.2050 

.2064 

.2078 

.2090 

.2102 

1.2114 

.2125 

.2136 

41 

1.2070 

1.2076 

1.2081 

.2095 

.2109 

1.2121 

.2133 

1.2145 

.2156 

.21C7 

38 

1.2101 

1.2107 

1.2112 

.2126 

.2140 

1.2162 

.2164 

1.2176 

.2187 

.2198 

35 

1.2132 

1.2138 

1.2143 

.2157 

1.2171 

1.2183 

.2196 

1.2207 

1.2118 

.2229 

32 

1.2163 

1.2169 

1.2175 

1.2188 

1.2202 

1.2214 

.2227 

1.2239 

1.2249 

.2260 

TABLES. 


221 


FACTORS   OF   EVAPORATION — Continued. 


Temp,  of 
Feed. 

Gauge  Pressure.  Pounds. 

100 

105 

115 

125 

135 

145 

155 

165 

185 

212°  F. 

1.0397 

1  .  1407 

1  .  1427 

.0445 

1.0462 

1.0478 

1.0493 

.0509 

.0536 

209 

1.0429 

1.0438 

1.0458 

.0476 

1.0493 

.0509 

1.0524 

.C540 

.0567 

206 

1.0460 

1.0470 

1.0489 

.0510 

1.0527 

.0543 

1.0558 

.C574 

.0601 

203 

1.0492 

1.0502 

1.0521 

.0540 

1  .  0557 

.0573 

.0588 

.0604 

.0631 

200 

1.0523 

1.0533 

1.0552 

.0571 

1.0588 

.0604 

.0619 

.0635 

.0662 

097 

1.0555 

1.0565 

1.0584 

.0602 

1.0619 

.0635 

.0650 

.0666 

.0693 

194 

1.0586 

1.0596 

1.0615 

.0635 

1.0652 

.0668 

.0683 

.0699 

.0726 

191 

1.0617 

1.0627 

1.0647 

.0665 

1.0682 

.0698 

.0713 

.0729,   .0756 

188 

1.0649 

1.0659 

1.0678 

.0696 

1.0713 

.0729 

.0744 

.0760   .0787 

185 

1.0680 

1.0690 

1.0709 

.0728 

1.0745 

.0761 

.0776 

.0792   .0819 

182 

1.0712 

1.0722 

1.0741 

.0759 

1.0776 

.0792 

.0807j   .0823   .0850 

179 

1.0743 

1.0753 

1.0772 

.0790 

1.0807 

.0823 

.0838   .0854   .0881 

176 

1.0774 

1.0784 

1.0803 

.0822 

1.0839 

.0855 

.C870   .0886   .0913 

173 

1.0806 

1.0816 

1.0835 

t0853 

1.0870 

.0886 

.0901   .0917!   .0944 

170 

1.0837 

1.0847 

1.0866 

.0884 

1.0901 

.0917 

.C932   .09481   .0975 

167 

1.0868 

1.0878 

1.0897 

.0916 

1.0933 

.0949 

.C964 

.0980   .1007 

164 

1.0900 

1.0910 

1.0929 

.0946 

1  .  0963 

.0979 

.0994 

.1010 

.1037 

161 

1.0931 

1.0941 

1.0960   .0979 

1.0996 

.1012 

.1027 

.1043 

.1070 

158 

1.0962 

1.0972 

1.0991   .1010 

1.1027 

.1043 

.1058 

.1074   .1101 

155 

1.0993 

1.1003 

1  .  1023 

.1041 

1.1058 

.1074 

.1C89 

.1105 

.1132 

152 

1.1025 

1.1035 

1  .  1054 

.1073 

1.1090 

.1107 

.1122 

.1138 

.1165 

149 

1.1056 

1.1066 

1.1085 

.1103 

1.1120 

.1136 

.1151 

.1167   .1194 

146 

1.1087 

1.1097 

1.1116 

.1135 

1.1152 

.1168 

.1183 

.1199 

.1226 

143 

1.1118 

1.1129 

1.1148 

.1166 

1.1183 

.1199 

.1214 

.1230 

.1257 

140 

1.1150 

1.1160 

1.1179 

.1197 

1.1214 

.1230 

.1245 

.1261 

.1288 

137 

1.1181 

1.1191 

1.1210 

.1228 

1.1245 

.1262 

.1277 

.1293 

.1320 

134 

1.1212 

1.1222 

1.1241 

.1260 

1.1277 

.1293 

.1308 

.1324 

.1351 

131 

1.1243 

1.1253 

1.1273 

.1291 

1.1308 

.1324 

.1339 

.1355 

.1382 

128 

1.1275 

1  .  1285 

1.1304 

.1322 

1.1339 

.1355 

.1370 

.1386 

.1413 

125 

1.1306 

1.1316 

1.1335 

.  1353 

1.1370 

.13^6 

.1401 

.1417 

.1444 

122 

1.1337 

1.1347 

1.1366 

.1384 

1.1401 

.1417 

.1438 

.1448 

.1475 

119 

1.1368 

1.1378 

1.1397 

.1415 

1.1432 

.1449 

.1464 

.1480 

.1507 

116 

1.1399 

1.1409 

1.1429 

.1447 

1.1464 

.1480 

.1495 

.1511 

.1538 

113 

1.1431 

1.1441 

1.1460 

.1478 

1.1495 

.1511 

.1526 

.1542 

.1569 

110 

1.1462 

1.1472 

1.1491 

.1509 

1.1516 

.1542 

.1557 

.1573 

.1600 

107 

1  .  1493 

1.1503 

1.1522 

.1540 

1.1557 

.1573 

.1588 

.1604 

.1631 

104 

1  .  1524 

1.1534 

1.1553 

.1571 

1.1588 

.1605 

.1619 

.1635 

.1662 

101 

1.1555 

1.1565 

1.1584 

.1602 

1.1620 

.1636 

.1652 

.1668 

.1695 

98 

1.1586 

1.1596 

1.1616 

.1634 

1.1651 

.1667 

.1683 

.1699 

.  1726 

95 

1.1618 

1.1628 

1  .  1647 

.1665 

1.1682 

.1698 

.1713 

.1729 

.1756 

92 

1.1649 

1.1660 

1.1678 

.1696 

1.1713 

.1729 

.1744 

.1760 

.1787 

89 

1.1680 

1  .  1690 

1.1709 

.1727 

1.1744 

.1760 

.1775 

.1791 

.1818 

86 

1.1711 

1.1721 

1.1740 

.1758 

1.1775 

.1791 

.1806 

.1822 

.1849 

83 

1.1742 

1  .  1752 

1.1771 

.1789 

1.1806 

.1823 

.1837 

.1853 

.1880 

80 

1.1773 

1.1783 

1.1802 

.1820 

1.1837 

.1854 

.1869 

.1885 

.1912 

77 

1.1804 

1.1814 

1.1834 

.1852 

1.1869 

.  1  885 

.1900 

.1916 

.1943 

74 

1.1835 

1.1845 

1.1865 

.1883 

1.1900 

.1916 

.1932 

.1948 

.1975 

71 

1.1867 

1.1877 

1.1896 

.1914 

1.1931 

.1947 

.1961 

.1977 

.2004 

68 

1.1898 

1.1908 

1.1927 

.1945 

1.1962 

.1978 

.1993 

.2C09 

.2036 

65 

1.1929 

1.1939 

1.1958 

.1976 

1.1993 

.2009 

.2024 

.2040 

.2067 

62 

1  .  1960 

1.1970 

1.198S 

.2007 

1  .  2024 

.2040 

.2055 

.2071 

.2098 

59 

1.1991 

1.2001 

1.202C 

.2038 

1.2055 

.2071 

.2086 

.2102 

.2129 

56 

1.2022 

1.2032 

1.2051 

.2069 

1  .  2086 

.2102 

.2117 

.2133 

.2160 

53 

1.2053 

1.2063 

1.2082 

.2100 

1.2117 

.2134 

.2148 

.2164 

.2191 

50 

1.2084 

1.2094 

1.2113 

.2131 

1.2148 

.2165 

.2180 

.2196 

.2223 

47 

1.2115 

1.2125 

1.2144 

1.2163 

1.2180 

.2196 

.2211 

.2227 

.2254 

44 

1.2146 

1.2156 

1.2176 

1.2194 

1.2211 

.2227 

.2242 

.2258 

.2285 

41 

1.2177 

1.2187 

1.2207 

1.2225 

1.2242 

.2258 

.2273 

.2289 

.2316 

38 

1.2208 

1.2219 

1.2238 

1.2256 

1.2273 

.2289 

.2304 

.2320 

1.2347 

35 

1.2240 

1.2250 

1.2269 

1.2287 

1.2304 

1.2320 

1.2335 

.2351 

1.2378 

32 

1.2271 

1.2281 

1.2300 

1.2318 

1.2335 

1.2351 

1.2366 

.2382 

1.24C9 

222 


BOILER-WATERS. 


TABLE  IV. 

PROPERTIES    OP   SATURATED   STEAM. 


Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

h 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 
above  32°  F. 

Volume. 

g 

i 

S 

03    Q 

3  a 

-s    .Sg 

Relative 

Specific. 

°| 

|| 

-S   a 

as 

si 

1||| 

?13* 

Cu.  Feet  in 
1  Cu.  Foot 

Cubic  Feet 
in  1  Pound 

|l| 

o 

< 

P 

.si 

•^ 

tti 

of  Water. 

of  Steam. 

f 

1 

102 

70.1 

1042.9 

1113.0 

20623 

330.4 

.0030 

2 

126.2 

94.4 

1026.0 

1120.4 

10730 

171.9 

.0058 

3 

141.6 

109.8 

1015.2 

1125.1 

7325 

117.3 

.0085 



4 

153.0 

121.4 

1007.2 

1128.  C 

5588 

89.51 

.0112 

5 

162.3 

130.7 

1000  .  7 

1131.4 

4530 

72.56 

.0138 

6 

170.1 

138.5 

995.2 

1133.8 

3816 

61.14 

.0164 

7 

176.9 

145.4 

990.4 

1135.8 

3302 

52.89 

.0189 

8 

182.9 

151.4 

986.2 

1137.7 

2912 

46.65 

0214 

9 

188  3 

156.9 

982  4 

1139  3 

2607 

41.77 

.0239 

10 

193.2 

161.9 

978.9 

1140.8 

2361 

37.83 

.0264 

11 

197.7 

166.5 

975.7 

1142.2 

2159 

34.59 

.0289 



12 

201.9 

170.7 

972.8 

1143.5 

1990 

31.87 

.0314 



13 

205.8 

174.7 

970.0 

1144.7 

1845 

29.56 

.0338 



14 

209.5 

178.4 

937.4 

1145.8 

1721 

27  .  58 

.0363 

'    .304 

15 

213  0 

181.9 

934.9 

1146.9 

1614 

25.85 

.0387 

1.3 

16 

216.3 

185.2 

932.6 

1147.9 

1519 

24.33 

.0411 

2.3 

17 

219.4 

188.4 

930.4 

1148.8 

1434 

22.98 

.0435 

3.3 

18 

222  3 

191.4 

958.3 

1149.7 

1359 

21.72 

.0459 

4.3 

19 

225  2 

194.2 

953.3 

1150.  ( 

1202 

20.70 

.0483 

5.3 

20 

227.9 

197.0 

954.4 

1151.4 

1231 

19.73 

.0507 

6.3 

21 

230  5 

199.  G 

952.5 

1152.2 

1176 

18.84 

.0531 

7.3 

22 

233.0 

202.2 

95J.8 

1153.  ( 

1120 

18.04 

.0554 

8.3 

23 

235.4 

204.0 

949.0 

1153.7 

1080 

17  30 

.0578 

9.3 

24 

237  7 

207.0 

947.4 

1154.4 

1038 

16.62 

.0602 

10.3 

25 

240.0 

209.3 

945.8 

1155.1 

998.4 

16.00 

.0625 

11.3 

26 

242.1 

211.5 

944.2 

1155.8 

962.3 

15.42 

.0649 

12  3 

27 

244.2 

213.6 

942.7 

1153.4 

928.8 

14.88 

.0672 

13.3 

28 

246.3 

215.7 

941.3 

1157.0 

897.6 

14.38 

.0695 

14.3 

29 

248.3 

217.7 

939.9 

1157.6 

868.5 

13.91 

.0719 

15.3 

30 

250.2 

219.7 

938.9 

1158.2 

841.3 

13.48 

.0742 

16.3 

31 

252.1 

221.6 

937.1 

1158.8 

815.8 

13.07 

.0765 

17.3 

32 

253.9 

223.5 

935.9 

1159.3 

791.8 

12.68 

.0788 

18.3 

33 

255.7 

225.3 

934.6 

1159.9 

769.2 

12.32 

.0812 

19.3 

34 

257.4 

227.1 

933.3 

11G0.4 

748.0 

11.98 

.0835 

20.3 

35 

259.1 

228.8 

932  .  1 

1160.9 

727.9 

11.66 

.0858 

21.3 

33 

230.8 

230.5 

931.0 

1161.5 

708.8 

11.37     ;    .0881 

2?.  3 

37 

262.4 

232.1 

929.8 

1161.9 

690.8 

11.07 

.0904 

23.3 

38 

234.0 

233.8 

9^8.6 

1162.4 

673.7 

10.79 

.0027 

24.3 

39 

265.6 

235  3 

927.5 

1162.9 

657.5 

10.53     !    .0949 

25.3 

40         267.1 

236.9 

926.4 

1163.4 

642.0 

10.28        .0972 

26.3 

41         268  .  6 

238.4      9^5.4 

1163.8 

627.3 

10.05        .0995 

27.3 

42      ;  270.0 

239.9      914.3 

1164.3 

613.3 

9.826       .1018 

TABLES. 

PROPERTIES    OF   SATURATED    STEAM—  Continued. 


223 


Pounds  per 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 

Volume. 

Square  Inch. 

E* 

above  32°  F. 

£8 

i 

J 

if 

c 

Relative. 

Specific. 

O-*> 

|1 

l| 

2  £ 
P 

ll 

mi 

ill! 

Cu.  Feet  in 

Cubic  Feet 

•^.2  S 

°£ 

£  ts 

S£ 

JjhO  N 

11  H  WOQ 

1  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pound 

'SOoa 

o 

* 

H 

* 

^ 

SI 

of  Water. 

of  Steam. 

£ 

28.3 

43 

271.5 

241.4 

923.3 

1164.7 

599.9 

9.609 

.1041 

29.3 

44 

272.9 

242.8 

922.3 

1165.1 

587.0 

9.403 

.1063 

30.3 

45 

274.3 

244.2 

921.3 

1165.6 

574.7 

9.207 

.1086 

31.3 

46 

275.6 

245.6 

920.3 

1166.0 

563.0 

9.018 

.1109 

32.3 

47 

276.9 

247.0 

919.4 

1166.4 

551.7 

8.838 

.1131 

33.3 

48 

278.2 

248.3 

918.4 

1166.8 

540.9 

8.665 

.1154 

34.3 

49 

279.5 

249.6 

917.5 

1167.2 

530.5 

8.498 

.1171 

35.3 

50 

280.8 

250.9 

916.6 

1167.  C 

520.5 

8.338 

.1199 

36.3 

51 

282.1 

252.2 

915.7 

1167.9 

510.9 

8.185 

.1222 

37.3 

52 

283.3 

253.5 

914.8 

1168.3 

501.7 

8.037 

.1244 

38.3 

53 

284.5 

254.7 

913.9 

1168.7 

492.8 

7.894 

.1267 

39.3 

54 

285.7 

255.9 

913.1 

1169.0 

484.2 

7.756 

.1289 

40.3 

55 

286.9 

257.1 

912.2 

1169.4 

475.9 

7.624 

.1312 

41.3 

58 

288.0 

258.3 

911.4 

1169.7 

467.9 

7.496 

.1334 

42.3 

57 

289.1 

259.5 

910.6 

1170.1 

460.2 

7.372 

.  1357 

43.3 

58 

290.3 

260.6 

909.8 

1170.4 

452.7 

7.252 

.1379 

44.3 

59 

291.4 

261.7 

909.0 

1170.8 

445.5 

7.136 

.1401 

45.3 

60 

292.5 

262.9 

908.2 

1171.1 

438.5 

7.024 

.1424 

46.3 

61 

293.6 

234.0 

907.4 

1171.4 

431.7 

6.916 

.1446 

47.3 

62 

294.6 

265.1 

906.7 

1171.8 

425.2 

6.811  » 

.1468 

48.3 

63 

295.7 

236.1 

905.9 

1172.1 

418.8 

6.709 

.1491 

49.3 

64 

293.7 

237.2 

905.2 

1172.4 

412.6 

6.610 

.1513 

50.3 

65 

297.7 

238.3 

904.4 

1172.7 

406.6 

6.515 

.1535 

51.3 

66 

298.7 

289.3 

903.7 

1173.0 

400.8 

6.422 

.1557 

52.3 

67 

299.7 

270.3 

903.0 

1173.3 

395.2 

6.332 

.1579 

53.3 

68 

300.7 

271.3 

902.3 

1173.6 

389.8 

6.244 

.1602 

54.3 

69 

301.7 

272.3 

901.5 

1173.9 

384.5 

6.159 

.1624 

55.3 

70 

302.7 

273.3 

900.9 

1174.2 

379.3 

6.076 

.1646 

53.3 

71 

303.6 

274.3 

900.2 

1174.5 

374.3 

5.995 

.  1668 

57.3 

72 

304.6 

275.3 

899.5 

1174.8 

369.4 

5.917 

.1690 

58.3 

73 

305.5 

276.2 

898.8 

1175.1 

364.6 

5.841 

.1712 

59.3 

74 

306.4 

277.2 

898.1 

1175.4 

360.0 

5.767 

.1734 

60.3 

75 

307.3 

278.1 

897.5 

1175.6 

355.5 

5.694 

.1756 

61.3 

76 

308.2 

279.0 

893.8 

1175.9 

351.1 

5.624 

.1778 

62.3 

77 

309.1 

280.0 

896.2 

1176.2 

346.8 

5.555 

.1800 

63.3 

78 

310.0 

280.9 

895.5 

1176.5 

342.6 

5.488 

.1822 

64.3 

79 

310.9 

281.8 

894.9 

1176.7 

338.5 

5.422 

.1844 

65.3 

80 

311.8 

282.7 

894.3 

1177.0 

334.5 

5.358 

.1866 

66.3 

81 

312.6 

283.5 

893.7 

1177.3 

330.6 

5.296 

.1888 

67.3 

82 

313.5 

284.4 

893.1 

1177.5 

326.8 

5.235 

.1910 

C8.3 

83 

314.3 

285.3 

892.4 

1177.8 

323.1 

5.176 

.1932 

C9.3 

84 

315  1 

233  .  1 

891.8 

1178.0 

319.5 

5.118 

.1954 

224 


BOILER- WATERS. 


PROPERTIES    OF    SATURATED    STEAM— Continued. 


Pounds  per 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 

Volume 

Square  Inch. 

to 

above  32°  F. 

ft 

Y£ 

o*> 

1 

g 

Q)  3 

-Hi 

03    0) 

(J 

c^'Ed 

^     £  • 

.Relative. 

Specific. 

"si  . 

ll 

l& 

11 

f||J 

K^-g    2_0) 

Cu.  Feet  in 

?ubic  Feet 

|l| 

J£ 

$« 

a* 

—  _.-''    N 

II  E-iEoQ 

.  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pound 

8 

H 

^ 

^ 

ttl 

of  Water. 

of  Steam. 

£ 

70.3 

85 

316.0 

287.0 

891.2 

1178.3 

315.9 

5.061 

.  1976 

71.3 

86 

316.8 

287.8 

890.6 

1178.5 

312.5 

5.006 

.1698 

72.3 

87 

317.6 

288.7 

890.1 

1178.8 

309.1 

4.851 

.2020 

73.3 

88 

318.4 

289.5 

889.5 

1179.0 

305.8 

4.868 

.2042 

74.3 

89 

319.2 

290.3 

888.9 

1179.3 

302.5 

4.846 

.2063 

75.3 

90 

320.0 

291.1 

888.3 

1179.5 

299.4 

4.766 

.2085 

76.3 

91 

320.8 

291.9 

887.8 

1179.8 

266.3 

4.746 

.2107 

77.3 

92 

321.6 

292.7 

887.2 

1180.0 

283.2 

4.687 

.2129 

78.3 

93 

322.3 

293.5 

886.6 

1180.2 

260.2 

4.650 

.2151 

79.3 

94 

323.1 

294.3 

886.1 

1180.4 

287.3 

4.603 

.2173 

80.3 

95 

323.8 

295.1 

885.5 

1180.7 

284.5 

4.557 

.2194 

81.3 

98 

324.6 

295.9 

885.0 

1180.9 

281.7 

4.513 

.2216 

82.3 

97 

325.3 

296.6 

884.5 

1181.1 

279.0 

4.469 

.2238 

83.3 

98 

326.1 

297.4 

883.9 

1181.4 

2V6.3 

4.426 

.2260 

84.3 

99 

326.8 

298.1 

883.4 

1181.6 

273.7 

4.384 

.2281 

85.3 

100 

327.5 

298.9 

882.9 

1181.8 

271.1 

4.342 

.2303 

86.3 

101 

328.2 

299.6 

882.3 

1182.0 

268.5 

4.302 

.2325 

87.3 

102 

329.0 

300.4 

881.8 

1182.2 

266.0 

4.262 

.2346 

88.3 

103 

329.7 

301.1 

881.3 

1182.5 

263.6 

4.223 

.2368 

89.3 

104 

330.4 

301.8 

880.8 

1182.7 

261.2 

4.185 

.2360 

90.3 

105 

331.1 

302.5 

880.3 

1182. 

258.9 

4.147 

.2411 

91.3 

106 

331.8 

303.3 

879.8 

1183. 

256.6 

4.110 

.2433 

92.3 

107 

332.4 

304.0 

879.3 

1183. 

254.3 

4.074 

.2455 

93.3 

108 

333.1 

304.7 

878.8 

1183. 

252.1 

4.038 

.2476 

94.3 

109 

333.8 

305.4 

878.3 

1183. 

249.9 

4.003 

.2488 

95.3 

110 

334.5 

306.1 

877.8 

1183. 

247.8 

3.669 

.2519 

93.3 

111 

335.1 

306.8 

877.  3 

1184. 

245.7 

3.835 

.2541 

97.3 

112 

335.8 

307.4 

876.9 

1184. 

243.6 

3.602 

.2563 

98.3 

113 

336.5 

308.1 

876.4 

1184. 

241.6 

3.870 

.2584 

99.3 

114 

337.1 

308.8 

875.9 

1184.7 

239.6 

3.838 

.2606 

100.3 

115 

337.8 

309.5 

875.4 

1184.9 

237.6 

3.806 

.2627 

101.3 

116 

338.4 

310.1 

875.0 

1185.1 

235.7 

3.775 

.2649 

102.3 

117 

339.1 

310.8 

874.5 

1185.3 

233.8 

3.745 

.2670 

103.3 

118 

339.7 

311.4 

874.0 

1185.5 

231.9 

3.715 

.2692 

104.3 

119 

340.3 

312.1 

873.6 

1185.7 

230.1 

3.685 

.2713 

105.3 

120 

340.9 

312.7 

873.1 

1185.9 

228.3 

3.656 

.2735 

106.3 

121 

341.6 

313.4 

872.7 

1186.1 

226.5 

3.628 

.2757 

107.3 

122 

342.2 

314.0 

872.5 

1186.3 

224.7 

3.600 

.2778 

108.o 

123 

342.8 

314.7 

871.8 

1186.5 

223.0 

3.572 

.2800 

109.3 

124 

343.4 

315.3 

871.3 

1186.6 

221.3 

3.545 

.2821 

110.3 

125 

344.0 

315.9 

870.9 

1186.8 

219.6 

3.518 

.2842 

111.3 

126 

344.6 

316.6 

870.4 

1187  0 

218.0 

3.492 

.2864 

j 

TABLES. 

PROPERTIES   OF   SATURATED   STEAM — Continued. 


225 


Pounds  per 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 

Volume. 

Square  Inch. 

£ 

O 

above  32°  F. 

So 

S 

~3 

g 

CJ  £3 

11 

•2*0  •£  _• 

•«       °  a 

Relative. 

Specific. 

°l 

o£s<   . 

a! 

3   GO 

P 

l| 

liil 

+•3-3! 

nS8| 

Cu.  Feet  in 

Cubic  Feet 

.^.2  S 

-E-0   a? 

t*  3  £ 

§£ 

s£ 

I*     ' 

.E£ 

^W>§ 

IIHEoQ 

1  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pound 

'SOOQ 

<j 

H 

-< 

*q 

&3 

of  Water. 

of  Steam. 

£ 

112.3 

127 

345.2 

317.2 

870.0 

1187.2 

216.4 

3.466 

.2885 

113.3 

128 

345.8 

317.8 

869.6 

1187.4 

214.8 

3.440 

.2907 

114.3 

129 

313.4 

318.4 

869.1 

1187.6 

213.2 

3.415 

.2928 

115.3 

130 

347  0 

319.0 

868.7 

1187.8 

211.6 

3.390 

.2950 

116.3 

131 

347.6 

319.6 

868.3 

1187.9 

210.1 

3.366 

.2971 

117.3 

132 

348.2 

320.2 

867.8 

1188.1 

208.6 

3.342 

.2992 

118.3 

133 

348.8 

320.8 

867.4 

1188.3 

207.1 

3.318 

.3014 

119.3 

134 

349.3 

321.4 

867.0 

1188.5 

205.7 

3.295 

.3035 

120.3 

135 

349.9 

322.0 

866.6 

1188.6 

204.2 

3.272 

.3057 

121.3 

136 

350.5 

322.6 

866.2 

1188.8 

202.8 

3.249 

.3078 

122.3 

137 

351.0 

323.2 

865.7 

1189.0 

201.4 

3.227 

.3099 

123.3 

138 

351.7 

323.8 

865.3 

1189.1 

200.0 

3.204 

.3121 

124.3 

139 

352.2 

324.3 

864.9 

1189.3 

198.7 

3.182 

.3142 

125.3 

140 

352.7 

324.9 

864.5 

1189.5 

197.3 

3.161 

.3163 

126.3 

141 

353.3 

325.5 

864.1 

1189.7 

196.0 

3.140 

.3185 

127.3 

142 

353.8 

326.1 

863.7 

1189.8 

194.7 

3.119 

.3206 

128.3 

143 

354.4 

326.8 

863.3 

1190.0 

193.4 

3.099 

.3227 

129.3 

144 

354.9 

327.2 

862.9 

1190.2 

192.2 

3.078 

.3249 

130.3 

145 

355.5 

327.8 

862.5 

1190.3 

190.9 

3.058 

.3270 

131.3 

146 

356.0 

328.3 

862.1 

1190.4 

189.7 

3.038 

.3291 

132.3 

147 

355.5 

328.9 

861.7 

1190.6 

188.5 

3.019 

.3313 

133.3 

148 

357.1 

329.4 

861.4 

1190.8 

187.3 

3.000 

.3334 

134.3 

149 

357.6 

330.0 

861.0 

1191.0 

186.1 

2.981 

.3355 

135.3 

150 

358.1 

330.5 

860.6 

1191.1 

184.9 

2.962 

.3376 

136.3 

151 

358.6 

331.1 

860.2 

1191.3 

183.7 

2.943 

.3398 

137.3 

152 

359.2 

331.0 

859.8 

1191.4 

182.6 

2.925 

.3419 

138.3 

153 

359.7 

332.2 

859.4 

1191.6 

181.5 

2.908 

.3439 

139.3 

154 

360.2 

332.7 

859.1 

1191.8 

180.4 

2.890 

.3460 

140.3 

155 

360.7 

333.2 

858.7 

1191.9 

179.2 

2.870 

.3484 

141.3 

156 

361.2 

333.7 

858.3 

1192.1 

178.1 

2.853 

.3505 

142.3 

157 

361.7 

334.3 

857.9 

1192.2 

177.0 

2.835 

.3526 

143.3 

158 

362.2 

334.8 

857.6 

1192.4 

176.0 

2.819 

.3547 

144.3 

159 

362.7 

335.3 

857.2 

1192.5 

174.9 

2.802 

.3568 

145.3 

160 

363.2 

335.8 

856.8 

1192.7 

173.9 

2.786 

.3589 

146.3 

161 

363.7 

336.3 

856.5 

1192.8 

172.9 

2.770 

.3610 

147.3 

162 

364.2 

336.9 

856.1 

1193.0 

171.9 

2.754 

.3631 

148.3 

163 

364.7 

337.4 

855.7 

1193.1 

171.0 

2.739 

.3650 

149.3 

164 

365.2 

337.9 

855.4 

1193.3 

170.0 

2.723 

.3672 

150.3 

165 

365.7 

338.4 

855.0 

1193.5 

169.0 

2.707 

.3693 

151.3 

166 

366.2 

338.9 

854.7 

1193.6 

168.1 

2.693 

.3714 

152.3 

167 

366.7 

339.4 

854.3 

1193.7 

167.1 

2.677 

.  3735 

153.3 

168 

367.1 

339.9 

853.9 

1193.9 

166.2 

2.662 

.3756 

226  BOILfift-WATERS. 

PROPERTIES    OF   SATURATED    STEAM— Ctffltitiutd. 


Pounds  per 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 

Volume. 

Square  Inch. 

6      . 

above  32°  F. 

r 

2 

| 

f 

u  ••!  •• 

^    .c  • 

Relative. 

Specific. 

°  0 

jj 

11 

|| 

ll 

111 

+||| 

Cu.  Feet  in 

Cubic  Feet 

5 

J£ 

73  &H 

Q  "J| 

HJI 

hJK>^ 

11  HffiM 

1  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pound 

•so 

3 

P 

•j 

* 

i 

of  Water- 

of  Steam. 

^ 

151.3 

169 

367.6 

340.4 

853.6 

1194.0 

165.3 

2.648 

.37 

155.3 

170 

368.1 

340.9 

853.2 

1194.2 

164.3 

2.632 

.37' 

153.3 

171 

368.6 

341.4 

852.9 

1194.3 

163.4 

2.617 

.38 

157.3 

172 

369.1 

341.9 

852.6 

1194.5 

162.5 

2.603 

.38 

158.3 

173 

369.5 

342.4 

852.2 

1194.6 

161.6 

2.588 

.38 

159.3 

174 

370.0 

342.8 

851.9 

1194.8 

160.7 

2.574 

.38 

160.3 

175 

370.5 

343.3 

851.5 

1194  9 

159.8 

2.560 

.39 

161.3 

176 

370.9 

343.8 

851.2 

1195.0 

158.9 

2.545 

.39 

162.3 

177 

371.4 

344.3 

850.8 

1195.2 

158.1 

2.533 

.39 

163.3 

178 

371.9 

344.8 

850.5 

1195.3 

157.2 

2.518 

.39 

164.3 

179 

372.3 

345.3 

850.2 

1195.5 

156.4 

2.505 

.39 

1G5.3 

180 

372.8 

345.7 

849.8 

1195.6 

155.6 

2.493 

.40 

166.3 

181 

373.2 

346.2 

849.5 

1195.7 

154.8 

2.480 

.40 

167.3 

182 

373.7 

346.7 

849.2 

1195.9 

154.0 

2.467 

.40 

168.3 

183 

374.1 

347.1 

848.8 

1196.0 

153.2 

2.455 

.40 

169.3 

184 

374.6 

347.6 

848.5 

1196.2 

152.4 

2.441 

.40 

170.3 

185 

375.0 

348.1 

848.2 

1196.3 

151.6 

2.428 

.41 

171.3 

186 

375.5 

348.6 

847.8 

1196.4 

150.8 

2.416 

.41 

172.3 

187 

375.9 

349.0 

847.5 

1196.6 

150.0 

2.403 

.41 

173.3 

188 

376.4 

349.5 

847.2 

1196.7 

149.2 

2.390 

.41 

174.3 

189 

376.8 

349.9 

846.9 

1196.8 

148.5 

2.379 

.42 

175.3 

190 

377.2 

350.4 

846.5 

1197.0 

147.8 

2.367 

.42 

170.  3 

191 

377.7 

350.8 

846.2 

1197.1 

147.0 

2.355 

.42 

177.3 

192 

378.1 

351.3 

845.9 

1197.2 

146.3 

2.344 

.42 

178.3 

193 

378.5 

351.7 

845.6 

1197.4 

145.6 

2.332 

.42 

179.3 

194 

379.0 

352.2 

845.3 

1197.5 

144.9 

2.321 

.43 

180.3 

195 

379.4 

352.6 

845.0 

1197.6 

144.2 

2.310 

.43 

181.3 

196 

379.9 

353.1 

844.6 

1197.8 

143.5 

2.299 

.43 

182.3 

197 

380.3 

353.5 

844.3 

1197.9 

142.8 

2.287 

.43 

183.3 

198 

380.7 

354.0 

844.0 

1198.0 

142.1 

2.276 

.43 

184.3 

199 

381.1 

354.4 

843.7 

1198.1 

141.4 

2.265 

.44 

185.3 

200 

381.5 

354.8 

843.4 

1198.3 

140.8 

2.255 

.44 

186.3 

201 

381.9 

355.3 

843.1 

1198.4 

140.1 

2.244 

.44 

187.3 

202 

382.4 

355.7 

842.8 

1198.5 

139.5 

2.235 

.44 

188.3 

203 

382.8 

356.1 

842.5 

1198.7 

138.8 

2.223 

.44 

189.3 

204 

383.2 

356.6 

842.2 

1198.8 

138.1 

2.212 

.45 

190.3 

205 

383.6 

357.0 

841.8 

1198.9 

137.5 

2.203 

.45 

191.3 

206 

384.0 

357.4 

841.5 

1199.0 

136.9 

2.193 

.45 

192.3 

207 

384.4 

357.9 

841.2 

1199.2 

136.3 

2.183 

.45 

193.3 

208 

384.8 

358.3 

841.0 

1199.3 

135  7 

2.174 

.46 

194.3 

209 

385.2 

358.7 

840.7 

1199.4 

135.1 

2.164 

.46 

195.3 

210 

385.6 

359.1 

840.4 

1199.5 

134.5 

2.154 

.46 

TABLES. 
PROPERTIES    OF   SATURATED   STEAM— Continued. 


227 


Pounds  per 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 

Volume. 

Square  Inch. 

0  « 

above  32°  F. 

SJ 

| 

fil 

11 

jj 

^.i  - 

.*»    .£  • 

Relative. 

Specific. 

"ol 

if 

%  z 
2. 

E    (H 

Ii 

|||| 

ill! 

?u.  Feet  in 

^ubic  Feet 

111 

p 

|£ 

5  "S 

&& 

—  _,-  tf 

ife-WOQ 

1  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pound 

o 

< 

s 

* 

*4 

55 

of  Water. 

of  Steam. 

f 

196.3 

211 

386.1 

359.6 

840.1 

1199.7 

133.9 

2.145 

.4663 

197.3 

212 

386.5 

360.0 

839.8 

1199.8 

133.3 

2.135 

.4684 

198.3 

213 

386.9 

360.4 

839.5 

1199.1, 

132.8 

2.126 

.4705 

199.3 

214 

387.3 

360.9 

839.2 

1200.1 

132.2 

2.117 

.4726 

200.3 

215 

387.7 

361.3 

838.9 

1200.2 

131.6 

2.108 

.4747 

201.3 

216 

388.1 

361.7 

838.6 

1200.3 

131.0 

2.098 

.4768 

202.3 

217 

388.5 

362.1 

838.3 

1200.4 

130.4 

2.089 

.4789 

203.3 

218 

388.9 

362.5 

838.0 

1200.5 

129.9 

2.080 

.4810 

204.3 

219 

389.3 

362.9 

837.8 

1200.7 

129.3 

2.070 

.4831 

205.3 

220 

389.6 

363.3 

837.5 

1200.8 

128.7 

2.061 

.4852 

206.3 

221 

390.1 

363.7 

837.3 

1201.0 

128.1 

2.052 

.4873 

207.3 

222 

390.5 

364.1 

837.0 

1201.1 

127.6 

2.043 

.4894 

208.3 

223 

390.8 

364.5 

836.7 

1201.2 

127.0 

2.035 

.  4915 

209.3 

224 

391.2 

364.9 

836.4 

1201.3 

126.5 

2.027 

.4936 

210.3 

225 

391.6 

365.3 

836.1 

1201.4 

126.0 

2.018 

.4956 

211.3 

226 

392.0 

365.8 

835.8 

1201.6 

125.4 

2.010 

.4977 

212.3 

227 

392.4 

366.1 

835.6 

1201.7 

124.9 

2.002 

.4998 

213.3 

228 

392.8 

366.5 

835.3 

1201.8 

124.4 

1.993 

.5019 

214.3 

229 

393.2 

366.9 

835.0 

1201.  S 

123.9 

1.984 

.5040 

215.3 

230 

393.5 

367.3 

834.7 

1202.0 

123.3 

1.976 

.5061 

216.3 

231 

393.9 

367.7 

834.4 

1202.1 

122.9 

1.968 

.5082 

217.3 

232 

394.3 

368.1 

834.1 

1202.2 

122.4 

1.960 

.5103 

218.3 

233 

394.7 

368.5 

833.9 

1202.4 

121.9 

1.952 

.5124 

219.3 

234 

395.1 

338.9 

833.6 

1202.5 

121.4 

1.944 

.5145 

220.3 

235 

395.5 

369.2 

833.4 

1202.6 

120.9 

.936 

.5165 

221.3 

236 

395.9 

369.6 

833.1 

1202.7 

120.4 

.928 

.5186 

222.3 

237 

396.3 

832.8 

370.0 

1202.8 

119.9 

.921 

.5207 

223.3 

238 

396.6 

832.5 

370.4 

1202.9 

119.4 

.913 

.5228 

224.3 

239 

397.0 

832.2 

370.8 

1203.0 

119.0 

.905 

.5249 

225.3 

240 

397.4 

832.0 

371.1 

1203.1 

il8.5 

.898 

.5270 

226.3 

241 

397.8 

831.7 

371.5 

1203.2 

118.0 

.891 

.5291 

227.3 

242 

398.1 

831.4 

371.9 

1203.3 

117.5 

.884 

.5312 

228.3 

243 

398.5 

831.1 

372.3 

1203.4 

117.1 

.857 

.5332 

229.3 

244 

398.9 

830.8 

372.7 

1203.5 

116.7 

.868 

.5353 

230.3 

245 

399.2 

830.6 

373.1 

1203.7 

116.2 

.861 

.  5374 

231.3 

246 

399.6 

830.4 

373.4 

1203.8 

115.7 

.853 

.5395 

232.3 

247 

400.0 

830.1 

373.8 

1203.9 

115.3 

.846 

.5416 

233.3 

248 

400.3 

829.8 

374.2 

1204.0 

114.9 

.839 

.5436 

234.3 

249 

400.7 

829.5 

374.6 

1204.1 

114.4 

.832 

.5457 

235.3 

250 

401.1 

829.2 

375.0 

1204.2 

114.0 

.825 

.5478 

238  .  3 

253 

402.1 

828.5 

376.0 

1204.5 

112.7 

.806 

.5540 

241.3 

256 

403.1 

827.9 

377.0 

1204.9 

111.4 

.785 

.5603 

228  BOILER-WATERS. 

PROPERTIES    OF  SATURATED    STEAM—  Continued. 


Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

§§ 

Heat  Units  in  One  Pound 
above  32°  F. 

Volume. 

%*3 
"o 

E 

E 

«_  , 

c  . 

Relative. 

Specific. 

o£  . 

3 

«  3 

(H* 

"~  e 

§i 

fc* 

II 

||  §,2 

Slis 

Cu.  Feet  in 

Cubic  Feet 

Ill 

3&H 

_D^ 

E  c4 

jj|P» 

—  _  ,--     N 

II  HE  02 

1  Cu.  Foot 

in  1  Pounc 

d 

< 

h 

* 

^ 

35 

of  Water. 

of  Steam  . 

^ 

244.3 

259 

404.2 

827.1 

378.1 

1205.2 

110.2 

1.766 

.5665 

247.3 

262 

405.2 

826.3 

379.2 

1205.5 

109.2 

1.746 

.5727 

250.3 

265 

406.1 

825.6 

380.2 

1205.8 

107.8 

1.728 

.5789 

253.3 

268 

407.2 

824.9 

381.2 

1206.1 

106.7 

1.709 

.5852 

256.3 

271 

408.1 

824.1 

382.3 

1206.4 

105.6 

.691 

.5914 

259.3 

274 

409.1 

823.4 

383.3 

1206.7 

104.5 

.673 

.  5976 

262.3 

277 

410.0 

822.7 

384.3 

1207.0 

103.4 

.656 

.  6039 

265.3 

280 

411.1 

822.0 

385.3 

1207.3 

102.3 

.639 

.6101 

268.3 

283 

412.1 

821.3 

386.3 

1207.6 

101.3 

.621 

.6164 

271.3 

286 

413.0 

820.6 

387  .  3 

1207.9 

100.3 

.606 

.6226 

274.3 

289 

414.0 

819.9 

388.3 

1208.2 

99.3 

.591 

.6288 

277.3 

292 

415.0 

389.2 

819.3 

1208.5 

98.35 

.575 

.6350 

280.3 

295 

415.9 

390.2 

818.6 

1208.8 

97.42 

1.560 

.6412 

283.3 

298 

416.9 

391.1 

818.0 

1209.1 

96.47 

1  .  545 

.6474 

285.3 

300 

417.4 

391.9 

817.4 

1209.3 

95.8 

1.535 

.6515 

290.3 

305 

418.9 

394.5 

815.2 

1209.7 

94.37 

1.510 

.6618 

295.3 

310 

420.5 

396.0 

814.2 

1210.2 

92.92 

.488 

.6721 

300.3 

315 

421.9 

397.6 

813.0 

1210.6 

91.52 

.465 

.6824 

305.3 

320 

423.4 

399.1 

812.0 

1211.1 

90.16 

.443 

.6927 

310.3 

325 

424.8 

400.6 

810.9 

1211.5 

88.84 

.422 

.7130 

315.3 

330 

426.3 

402.1 

809.8 

1211.9 

87  .  55 

.401 

.7133 

320.3 

335 

427.7 

403.6 

808.8 

1212.4 

86.31 

.382 

.7236 

325.3 

340 

429.1 

404.8 

808.1 

1212.9 

85.10 

.394 

.7339 

330.3 

345 

430.5 

406  .  0 

807.2 

1213.3 

83.92 

.343 

.7442 

335.3 

350 

431  .  90 

407.3 

806.4 

1213.7 

82.71 

1.325 

.7545 

385.3 

400 

444.9 

420.8 

796.9 

1217.7 

72.8 

1.167 

.8572 

435.3 

450 

456.6 

433.2 

788.1 

1221.3 

65.1 

1.042 

.9595 

485.3 

500 

467.4 

444.5 

780.0 

1224.5 

58.8 

.942 

1.0617 

535.3 

550 

477.5 

455.1 

772.5 

1227.6 

53.6 

.859 

1.1638 

585.3 

600 

486.9 

465.2 

765.3 

1230.5 

49.3 

.790 

1  .  2659 

635.3 

650 

495.7 

474.6 

758.6 

1233.2 

45.6 

.731 

1.3679 

685.3 

700 

504.1 

483.4 

752.3 

1235.7 

42.4 

.680 

1.4699 

735.3 

750 

512.1 

491.9 

746.1 

1238.0 

39.6 

.636 

1  .  5720 

785.3 

800 

519.6 

499.9 

740.4 

1240.3 

37.1 

.597 

1  .  6740 

835.3 

850 

526.8 

507.7 

734.8 

1242.5 

34.9 

.563 

1.7760 

885.3 

900 

533.7 

515.0 

729.7 

1244.7 

33.0 

.532 

1.8780 

935.3 

950 

540.3 

523.3 

723.4 

1246  7 

31.4 

.505 

.9800 

985.3 

1000 

546.8 

529.3 

719.4 

1248.7 

30.0 

.480 

2.0820 

TABLES.  229 

TABLE  V. 

EXPANSION  AND  WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES. 

(BUTTON.) 


Temper- 
ature . 

Relative 
Volume 
by  Expan- 
sion. 

Weight 
of  One 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Weight 
of  One 
Gallon. 
English. 

Temper- 
ature. 

Relative 
Volume 
by  Expan- 
sion. 

Weight 
of  One 
Cubic 
Foot, 

Weight 
of  One 
Gallon. 
English. 

0  Fahr. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

0  Fahr. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

32 

1.00000 

62.418 

10.0101 

100 

1.00639 

62.022 

9.947 

35 

0.99993 

62.422 

10.0102 

105 

1.00739 

61.960 

9.937 

110 

1.00889 

61.868 

9.922 

{ 

62.425 

1 

115 

.00989 

61.807 

9.913 

39.1 

0.  99989  <j 

Maximum 

}-  10.0112 

120 

.01139 

61.715 

9.897 

1 

density 

J 

125 

.01239 

61.654 

9.887 

40 

0.99989 

62.425 

10.0112 

130 

.01390 

61.563 

9.873 

45 

0.99993 

62.422 

10.0103 

135 

.01539 

61.472 

9.859 

46 

1.00000 

62.418 

10.0101 

140 

1.01690 

61.381 

9!  844 

50 

1.00015 

62.409 

10.0087 

145 

1.01839 

61.291 

9.829 

£?O      A  AA 

150 

1.01989 

61.201 

9.815 

52.3 

1.00029- 

62  .  400 
for  ordi- 

10.0072 

155 
160 

1.02164 
1.02340 

61.096 
60.991 

9.799 
9.781 

nary  cal" 
culations 

165 
170 

1.02589 
1.02690 

60.843 
60.783 

9.757 
9.748 

65 

1.00038 

62.394 

10.0063 

175 

1.02906 

60.665 

9.728 

60 

1.00074 

62.372 

10.0053 

180 

1.03100 

60.548 

9.711 

62     1 

185 

1.03300 

60.430 

9.691 

Mean 

190 

1.03500 

60.314 

9.672 

tern-    \ 

1.00101 

62.355 

10.000C 

195 

1.03700 

60.198 

9.654 

pera- 

200 

1.03889 

60.081 

9.635 

ture    J 

205 

1.0414 

59.93 

9.611 

65 

1.00119 

62.344 

9.9982 

210 

1.0434 

59.82 

9.594 

70 

1.00160 

62.313 

9.9933 

212 

1.0466 

59.64 

9.565 

75 

1.00239 

62.275 

9.9871 

230 

1.0529 

59.36 

9.520 

80 

1.00299 

62.232 

9.980 

250 

1.06243 

58.75 

9.422 

85 

1.00379 

62.182 

9.972 

300 

1.09563 

59.97 

9.136 

90 

1.00459 

62.133 

9.964 

400 

1.15056 

54.25 

8.700 

95 

1.00554 

62.074 

9.955 

500 

1.22005 

51.16 

8.204 

To  change  weight  of  one  gallon  English  to  weight  of  one  gallon 
United  States  multiply  the  figures  given  above  by  0.83295. 


230 


BOILER-WATERS. 


TABLE  VI. 

TEMPERATURE   OF   BOILING,    BAROMETER,    ALTITUDE. 


Boiling- 
point 
in  Deg. 
Fan. 

Barom- 
eter, 
Inches. 

Altitude 
above 
Sea-level, 
Feet. 

Boiling- 
point 
in  Deg. 
Fah 

Barom- 
eter, 
Inches. 

Altitude 
Above 
Sea-level, 
Feet. 

Boiling- 
point 
in  Deg. 
Fah. 

Barom- 
eter, 
Inches. 

Altitude 
above 
Sea-level. 
Feet. 

184 

16.79 

15,221 

196 

21.71 

8,481 

208.0 

27.73 

2,C63 

185 

17.16 

14,649 

197 

22.17 

7,932 

208.5 

28.00 

1,809 

186 

17.54 

14,075 

198 

22.64 

7,381 

209 

28.29 

1,539 

18V 

17.93 

13,498 

199 

23.11 

6,843 

209.5 

28.56 

1,290 

188 

18.32 

12,934 

200 

23.59 

6,304 

210 

28.85 

1,025 

189 

18.72 

12,367 

201 

24.  OS 

5,764 

210.5 

29.15 

754 

190 

19.13 

11,799 

202 

24.58 

5,225 

211 

29.42 

512 

191 

19.54 

11,243 

203 

25.08 

4,697 

211.5 

29  71 

255 

192 

19.96 

10,685 

204 

25.59 

4,169 

212 

30.00 

S  L,  =  0 

193 

20.39 

10,127 

205 

26.11 

3,642 

212.5 

30.30 

-261 

194 

20.82 

9,579 

206 

26.64 

3,115 

213 

30.59 

-511 

195 

21.26 

9,031 

207 

27.18 

2,589 

CORRECTIONS  FOR  TEMPERATURE. 


Mean  temp. 

F.  in  shade 

0° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

50° 

60° 

70° 

80° 

90° 

100° 

Multiply  by 

.933 

.954 

.975 

.996 

1.016 

1.036 

1.05£ 

1.079 

1.100 

1.121 

1.142 

At  the  level  of  the  sea,  water  boils  and  steam  is  made  at  212°  F., 
and  the  higher  the  altitude  above  sea-level  the  more  easily  water 
boils  and  steam  is  made;  the  lower  down  in  the  earth  we  descend 
the  more  difficult  it  is  to  make  steam. 


TABLES.  231 

TABLE  VII. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  SUBSTANCES  WITH  SYMBOLS. 
Substance  Composition. 

Acetic  acid C2H4C>2 

Alcohol C2H6OH 

Alkali  waste CaS 

Alum .K2SO4Al23SO4 

Alumina A12O3 

Ammonia NH3 

Ammonium  carbonate (NH4)2CO3 

Aqua  regia HNO3+3HC1 

Barium  carbonate BaCO3 

Barium  chloride BaCl2 

Bauxite A12O3+2H2Q 

Bitter  earth MgO 

Black  ash Na2CO3+CaS 

Bleaching-powder CaOCl2 

Bone-ash  .'.. Ca3(PO4)2 

Borax Na2B4O7+  10H2O 

Boracic  acid BO3H3 

Boric  acid H2B2O4 

Calcium  bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 

Calcium  carbonate CaCO3 

Calcium  chloride CaCl2 

Calcium  hydrate Ca(HO)2 

Calcium  sulphate CaSO4 

Calc-spar CaCO3 

Carbonic  acid CO2 

Carbonic  oxide CO. 

Caustic  lime Ca(OH)2 

Caustic  potash KHO 

Caustic  soda NaHO 

Chalk CaCOa 

Copperas FeSO4+  7H2O 

Corrosive  sublimate HgCl> 

Cream  of  tartar KHC4H4O6 

Dolomite MgCO3+CaCO3 

Epsom  salts MgSO4+7H2O 

Ferric  oxide '. Fe2O3 

Ferric  sulphate Fe2(SO4)3+9H2O 

Ferrous  carbonate FeCOs 

Ferrous  oxide FeO 

Ferrous  sulphate FeSO4+ 7H2O 

Glauber's  salt NaaSO4  +  10H2O 

Gypsum.  ,. CaSO4+2H2O 

Hematite Fe2O3 

Hydrochloric  acid HC1 

Iron-rust.  . 2FeO3+3H2O 

Iron  pyrites. FeS2 

Kaolin Al?O3+2SfiO2+2H26 


232  BOILER-WATERS. 

CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION  OF  SUBSTANCES  WITH   SYMBOLS — Continued. 

Substance.  Composition. 

Lime CaO 

Lime  (slaked) Ca(HO)2 

Limestone CaCO3 

Magnesium  hydrate Mg(OH)v 

Magnesium  bicarbonate Mg(  BCO3), 

Magnesium  carbonate. . MgCO3 

Magnesium  chloride MgCl3 

Magnesium  sulphate MgSO4 

Marble CaCO2 

Mortar • Ca(OH2)  +  4SiO, 

Nitre KNO3 

Nitric  acid HNO3 

Ozone, O3 

Pearlash K2CO3+  2H2O 

Permanganic  acid HMnO4 

Plaster  of  Paris CaSO4 

Potash.  , , KHO 

Potash  alum.  .  ,  .  , K2A12(SO4)4+  24H2O 

Potassium  bicarbonate KHCO2 

Potassium  carbonate K2CO3 

Potassium  permanganate KMnO4 

Quartz SiO2 

Quicklime. CaO 

Rock  salt NaCl 

Sal  ammoniac. .  , NH4C1 

Salt  (common) NaCl 

Salt  cake Na2SO4 

'Saltpetre KNO3 

Sandstone SiO3 

Silica SiO2 

Soda Na2CO3 

Soda  ash Na2CO3 

Sodium  bicarbonate NaHCO3 

Sodium  carbonate Na2CO3 

Sodium  chloride NaCl 

Sodium  sulphate Na2SO4 

Sugar-cane C,  2H22Oi  t 

Sulphuric  acid H2SO4 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen H^ 

Talc : MgO 

Tannic  acid •  •  • C,4H  0O9 

Tri-sodium  phosphate Na3PO4 

Vitriol,  Blue CuSO4  +  5H2O 

Vitriol,  Green FeSO4+  7H2O 

Vitriol,  Oil  of • H?SO4 

Vitriol,  White ZnSO4  +  7H2O 

Wad H2MnO3 

Water(pure) H2O 


INDEX. 


Acids,  15,  19 

Acids,  tables  of  formation  of,  90,  91 

Acids   test  tor,  17 

Alum 'filters,  134 

Analyses,  scale,  46,  63,  64 

Analyses,  scale,  silicate,  65 

Analyses  of  water: 

containing  oil,  46 

general,  32,  33 

New  England  States,  30 

New  York  Central  lines,  29 

New  York  State  Canal,  49 

Pennsylvania,  30 

Scaife  &  Sons  Co.,  34 

Texas,  31 
Archbutt's  method  of  analysis,  25 

Bagged  and  ruptured  sheet,  40 
Bagged  plate,  from  oil,  132 
Barium  carbonate,  14 
Barometer  and  boiling  temperature, 

230 

Bio  wing-off,  23,  115 
Blow-off  pipe,  ruptured,  103 
Blow-off  pipe,  side  elevation,  104 
Boiler  compounds,  15,  213 
Boiler  destruction  from  oxidation  of 

iron,  88 
Boiler  scale,  39 
Bottle,  graduated,  84 
Brass  pipe,  corroded,  107 
Brass  pipe,  when  to  be  used,  109 
Brass  tubes,  effect  of  electrolysis,  106 

Calcium,  to  determine  by  turbidim- 

eter,  153 

Calcium  carbonate,  9 
Calcium  carbonate,  precipitation,  10 
Calcium  sulphate,  7 
Calcium  sulphate,  solubility,  8 
Carbonate  and  sulphate  waters,  178 
Carbonate  waters,  178 


Carbonic  acid,  test  for,  17 
Carbonic-acid  gas,  7 
Caustic  baryta,  14 
Chemical  analysis,  16 

alkaline  or  acid,  17 

Archbutt's  method,  25 

carbonic  acid,  17 

copper,  19 

hard  or  soft  water,  17 

iron,  19 

lead,  18 

magnesia,  18 

sulphate  of  lime,  18 

sulphur  combinations,  19 
Chemical     composition     of     various 

substances,  with  symbols,  231 
Compressibility  of  water,  4 
Condenser,  surface,  155 
Condenser-tubes,  104 
Conductivity,  thermal,  61 
Conductivity  of  scale,  55 
Conductivity  of  solids,  56 
Conversion,  milligrammes  to  grains, 

217 

Cooling  down  of  boilers,  115 
Copper,  test  for,  19 
Corroded  boiler-head,  76 
Corroded  brace,  75 
Corroded  plate,  91 
Corroded  rivet,  75 
Corrosion,  68 

around  stay-bolts,  97 

effect  of  galvanic  action,  102 

effect  of  stress  in  metals,  102 

explosion  due  to,  88,  89 

followed  by  scale  formation,  85 

from  air  on  wet  tubes,  83 

from  ashes,  69 

from  rain-water,  74 

iron  and  steel,  72 

of  condenser-tubes,  104 

of  tubes,  91,  92,  93,  94 

233 


234 


INDEX. 


Corrosion,  of  tubes,  nickel-steel,  94, 

95 

pipe,  109 
Thwaite's  rule,  101 

Corrosive  action  of  chloride  of  mag- 
nesium, 77 

Corrosive  action  of  sea- water,  81,  83 

Corrosive  action  of  water  on  metals, 
80 

Corrosive  salts,  7 

Corrosiveness,  testing  for,  83 

Economizers,  174 
Electrolysis  on  brass  tubes,  106 
Electrolytic  action,  copper  pipes,  139 
Erfmann  Boiler-water  Controller,  21 
Expansion    and    weight    of    water, 

table,  229 
Extraction  of  oil,  133 

Factors  of  evaporation,  219 
Feed-water,  causing  pitting,  98 
Feed-water,  classification  as  to  scale- 
forming,  37 

Feed-water,  saving  from  heating,  218 
Feed-water,  very  bad,  214 
Feed- water  heaters,  154 

Baragwanath,  161 

Blake-Knowles,  165 

classification,  155 

Cochrane,  168,  169 

copper  coil,  163 

Goubert,  158 

Harrisburg,  164 

Hoppes,  172 

multicurrent,  165 

Patterson-Berry  man,  157 

Stillwell,  173 

test  of,  166,  174 

Victor,  171 

Wain  wright,  159 

Webster,  170 

Wheeler,  162 

Whitlock,  163 
Feed-water  pipes,  103 
Feed-water  testing,  Holland,  20 
Filters,  134 
Foaming,  117-119 

Foaming,  tests  on  various  boilers,  119 
Fuel  economizers,  174,  175 

Galvanic  action,  139 

Gases,  absorption  of,  in  water,  5 

Glycerine,  14 

Grease,  136 

Grooved  and  pitted  plate,  77 

Gypsum,  test  for,  18 


Hardness,  Clark's  method  of  deter- 
mination, 142 

Hardness,  Hehner's  method  of  deter- 
mination, 144 
Hardness  of  water,  142 

classification,  37 

ground- waters,  148 

surface-waters,  147 

table,  145 
Heat,  conduction  of,  51,  55,  61 

conduction  of,  solids,  56 

resistance,  various  metals,  11 

transmission  of,  52 

transmission,  scale-covered  tubes, 

57 
Heat-absorbing  power  of  boiler,  55 

Iron,  test  for,  19 

Iron  and  aluminium  oxides,  14 

Jackson  turbidimeter,  150 
Kerosene  oil,  128 

Lead,  test  for,  18 

Locomotive     boilers,     cooling     and 

washing,  44 
Locomotive  boilers,  tests  of  scaled, 

59,  60,  61 

Locomotive  tubes,  tests,  57,  58 
Locomotives,  water  for,  212 

Magnesia,  test  for,  18 
Magnesium  carbonate,  11 
Magnesium  chloride,  12 
Magnesium  chloride,  corrosive  action 

of,  77 

Magnesium  sulphate,  11 
Mud-cleaner,  locomotive,  114 
Mud-drums,  98,  99,  100 

Oil,  128 

burned  under  boilers,  135 

crude,  130 

extraction  of,  133 

mineral,  deposits  formed,  132 

use  of  crude,  under  boiler,  135 
Oil  separation  by  electricity,  135 
Oxygen  dissolved  in  water,  5 

Pitted  pipe,  89 
Pitted  plate,  77,  97 
Pitted  tube,  89 
Pitting,  73-77,  96,  98 
Pittsburgh  experiments,  65 
Prevention  of  scale,  50 
Priming  and  foaming,  117 


INDEX. 


235 


Priming    and    foaming,    locomotive, 

118 
Properties  of  saturated  steam,  22 

Removal  of  scale,  50,  140 

Salt  water  as  feed-water,  89 
Scale,  39 

accumulation  in  flue  ends,  45 

calcium  sulphate,  11 

effect  on  evaporation,  52,  55 

effect  on  evaportaion,  locomotive 
boiler,  58 

Exhibit  1,  42 

Exhibit  2,  38 

Exhibit  3,  42 

Exhibit  4,  43 

Exhibit  5,  44 

from  weak  soda-liquor  water,  47 

removing,  50,  140 
Scale-forming  solids,  7,  61 
Scale-oil,    comparative    heat    resist- 
ance, 136 
Sea-water,  4,  7,  31 
Sea- water,  action  on  cast  iron,  83 
Sediment  collected  in  boilers,  62 
Silica..  14 
Silicic  acid,  14 
Soap  required  for  permanent  lather, 

148 

Soda,  how  to  add,  23 
Sodium  carbonate,  12 
Sodium  chloride,  13 
Sodium  chloride,  solubility,  13 
Sodium  sulphate,  12 
Sodium  sulphate,  solubility,  12 
Softener,  automaticor  continuous,  193 
Softener,  intermittent,  180,  193 
Softening,  177 

by  boiling,  215 

chemistry  of,  177 

locomotive  practice,  187,  188 
Softening  plant: 

Breda  system,  209,  210 

Bruun-Lowener,  211 

Kennicott,  189,  190,  191,  192 

N.  Y.  Continental  Jewell,  193,  194, 
195 

Ohio,  180,  181,  183,  184,  185 


Softening  plant! 

Pittsburg  filter  Mfg.  Co.,  197,  198 

Scaife  system,  207 

Scaife  system,  scale  from,  209 

Tweeddale  system,  205 

We-fu-go,  196,  208 

Winnipeg,  201,  202,  203 
Solubility,  15 

Steam,  properties  of,  table,  222 
Sulphate  waters,  178 
Sulphates,  149 

Sulphates,  Jackson's  method  of  deter- 
mination, 149,  152 
Sweet's  mud-catcher,  112 
Sweet's  setting  for  horizontal  tubular 
boilers,  113 

Tables,  mathematical,  217 
Temperature,  gas-emission  curve,  6 
Temperature   of   boiling   at   various 

altitudes,  230 
Test-tubes,  18 
Troubles   due  to   water,   prevention 

and  cure,  37 
Tubes,  damaged,  92 
Turbidimeter,  Jackson,  150 

Water: 

bad  for  steam  purposes,  36 

compressibility,  4 

expansion  and  weight  of,  229 

for  locomotives,  212 

impurities  in  natural,  3 

its  properties,  1, 

mineral,  31 

polluted  river,  2 

rain,  2 

softening,  177 

spring,  4 

Well-water,  analysis,  3,  80 
Winnipeg  softening  plant,  200 
Witherite,  14 
Wood  extracts,  15 
Wrought-iron  pipe: 

corroded,  111 

durability,  109 

versus  steel,  110 

Zinc,  137 


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BODMER,  G.  R.     Hydraulic  Motors  and  Turbines.     For 

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BOILEAU,  J.  T.     A  New  and  Complete  Set  of  Traverse 

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BOOTH,  W.  H.  Water  Softening  and  Treatment,  Con- 
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BOURRY,  E.     Treatise  on  Ceramic  Industries.    A  Complete 

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BOWIE,   AUG.   J.,   Jr.,   M.E.      A    Practical    Treatise   on 

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cloth.  Illustrated $5.00 

BOWKER,  Wm.   R.      Dynamo,   Motor    and   Switchboard 

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BOWSER,    E.    A.,    Prof.     An    Elementary    Treatise    on 

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British    Standard    Sections.     Issued    by    the    Engineering 

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BROWN,    WM.  N.     Principle    and    Practice    of    Dipping, 

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BURGH,  N.  P.     Modern  Marine  Engineering,  Applied  to 

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BURT,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass,  and  Surveyor's 

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CARTER,  E.  T.  Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Elec- 
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Mechanical  Equipment  of  Power  Stations  for  Electrical  Supply 
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CATHCART,   WM.   L.,   Prof.     Machine   Design.     Part   I. 

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to  Mechanical  Engineering In  Press 

CHAMBER'S   MATHEMATICAL    TABLES,   consisting   of 

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CHARPENTIER,    P.     Timber.    A    Comprehensive    Study 

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CHAUVENET,    W.,    Prof.     New    Method    of    Correcting 

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CHILD,    C.    T.     The   How   and   Why   of   Electricity.     A 

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CHRISTIE,  W.  W.  Boiler-waters,  Scale,  Corrosion,  Foam- 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  11 

CHRISTIE,  W.  W.  Furnace  Draft :  its  Production  by  Me- 
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CLAPPERTON,   G.     Practical   Paper-making.    A   Manual 

for  Paper-makers  and  Owners  and  Managers  of  Paper  Mills,  to 
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illustrations  reproduced  from  micro-photographs.  12mo,  cloth, 
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CLARK,  D.  K.,  C.E.     A  Manual  of  Rules,  Tables  and 

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tigations. Illustrated  with  numerous  diagrams.  1012  pages.  8vo, 
cloth.  Sixth  Edition $5.00 

Fuel:    its  Combustion  and  Economy;  consisting  of 

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Williams,  and  the  Economy  of  Fuel,  by  T.  S.  Prideaux.  With 
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The   Mechanical   Engineer's  Pocket-book  of    Tables, 

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Tramways :  Their  Construction  and  Working.  Em- 
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CLARK,  J.  M.  New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turn- 
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CLAUSEN-THUE,  W.     The  A  B  C  Universal  Commercial 

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The  A  1   Universal  Commercial  Electric  Telegraphic 

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12  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

CLEEMANN,   T.   M.     The   Railroad   Engineer's   Practice. 

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Young  Engineer  in  Preliminary  and  Location  Surveys  and  in 
Construction.  Fourth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

CLEVENGER,  S.  R.  A  Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Gov- 
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missioner of  the  General  Land  Office,  with  complete  Mathemati- 
cal, Astronomical,  and  Practical  Instructions  for  the  use  of  the 
United  States  Surveyors  in  the  field.  16mo,  morocco $2 . 50 

CLOUTH,   F.     Rubber,   Gutta-Percha,   and  Balata.     First 

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Author.  With  numerous  figures,  tables,  diagrams,  and  folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

COFFIN,  J.  H.  C.,  Prof.  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astron- 
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Edition.  Revised  by  Commander  Charles  Belknap.  52  woodcut 
illustrations.  12mo,  cloth net,  $3 . 50 

COLE,  R.  S.,  M.A.     A  Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics. 

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to  photography.  12mo,  cloth,  103  illus.  and  folding  plates.  .$2.50 

COLLINS,  J.  E.  The  Private  Book  of  Useful  Alloys  and 
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COLLINS,  T.  B.     The  Steam  Turbine,  or  the  New  Engine. 

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COOPER,  W.  R.,  M.A..  Primary  Batteries:  Their  Con- 
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COPPERTHWAITE,    WM.    C.     Tunnel    Shields,    and    the 

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COREY,  H.  T.   Water-supply  Engineering.   Fully  illustrated. 

In  Press. 

CORNWALL,  H.  B.,  Prof.  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis, 
Qualitative  and  Quantitative.  With  a  Complete  System  of 
Determinative  Mineralogy.  8vo,  cloth,  with  many  illustra- 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  13 

COWELL,  W.  B.  Pure  Air,  Ozone  and  Water.  A  Prac- 
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Paint,  Glue  and  other  Industries.  With  tables  and  figures. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated. net,  $2 . 00 

CRAIG,   B.  F.     Weights  and  Measures.     An  Account  of 

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CROCKER,  F.  B.,  Prof.     Electric   Lighting.     A  Practical 

Exposition  of  the  Art.  For  use  of  Engineers,  Students,  and 
others  interested  in  the  Installation  or  Operation  of  Electrical 
Plants.  Vol.  I.  The  Generating  Plant.  New  Edition,  thoroughly 

revised  and  rewritten.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $3 .00 

Vol.  II.  Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps.  Fifth  Edition.  8vo, 
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-  and  WHEELER,  S.  S.    The  Management  of  Electrical 

Machinery.  Being  a  thoroughly  revised  and  rewritten  edition  of 
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With  a  special  chapter  by  H.  A.  Foster.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $1.00 

CROSSKEY,  L.  R.     Elementary  Perspective:   Arranged  to 

meet  the  requirements  of  Architects  and  Draughtsmen,  and  of 
Art  Students  preparing  for  the  elementary  examination  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensington.  With  numer- 
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and  THAW,  J.     Advanced  Perspective,  involving  the 

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Examination  of  the  Education  Department.  With  numerous  full- 
page  plates  and  diagrams.  8vo.  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 50 

DAVIES,    E.    H.     Machinery    for    Metalliferous    Mines. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Mining  Engineers,  Metallurgists  and 
Managers  of  Mines.  With  upwards  of  400  illustrations.  Second 
Edition,  rewritten  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth net,  $8 . 00 

DAVIES,  D.  C.    A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and 

Mining.  Sixth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  much  enlarged  by  his 
son.  8vo,  cloth net,  $5.00 

Mining  Machinery In  Press. 

DAVISON,  G.  C.,  Lieut.    Water-tube  Boilers In  Press. 


14  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

DAY,  C.     The  Indicator  and  its  Diagrams.     With  Chap 

ters  on  Engine  and  Boiler  Testing;  including  a  Table  of  Piston 
Constants  compiled  by  W.  H.  Fowler.  12mo,  cloth.  125  illus- 
trations   $2.00 

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powders  and  detergents.  With  a  treatise  on  perfumes  for  scented 
soaps,  and  their  production  and  tests  for  purity  and  strength. 
Edited  from  the  text  of  numerous  experts.  Translated  from  the 
original  by  S.  I.  King,  F.C.S.  With  figures.  4to,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $5.00 

DE  LA  COUX,  H.     The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     With 

numerous  tables,  figures,  and  diagrams.  Translated  from  the 
French  and  revised  by  Arthur  Morris.  8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

DENNY,  G.  A.     Deep-level  Mines  of  the  Rand,  and  their 

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view.  With  folding  plates,  diagrams,  and  tables.  4to,  cloth, 
illustrated. net,  $10 . 00 

DERR,    W.    L.     Block    Signal    Operation.     A    Practical 

Manual.     Pocket  Size.     Oblong,  cloth.     Second  Edition $1.50 

DIBDIN,  W.  J.     Public  Lighting  by  Gas  and  Electricity. 

With  tables,  diagrams,  engravings  and  full-page  plates.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $8 . 00 

Purification    of   Sewage    and   Water.      With    tables, 

engravings,  and  folding  plates.  Third  Edition,  revised  and 
enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  illus.  and  numerous  folding  plates ....  $6 . 50 

DIETERICH,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum 

Resins:  their  Chemistry  and  Pharmacognosis.  For  the  use  of 
the  Scientific  and  Technical  Research  Chemist.  With  a  Bibliog- 
raphy. Translated  from  the  German,  by  Chas.  Salter.  8vo. 
cloth net,  $3 .00 

DIXON,    D.    B.     The   Machinist's   and   Steam   Engineer's 

Practical  Calculator.  A  Compilation  of  Useful  Rules  and  Prob- 
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applicable  to  Shop-tools,  Mill-gearing,  Pulleys  and  Shafts,  Steam- 
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tion in  Screw-cutting,  Valve  and  Link  Motion,  etc.  Third  Edition. 
16mo,  full  morocco,  pocket  form $1 . 25 

DOBLE,  W.  A.     Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific 

Coast .  . ,  .    In  Press. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  15 

DODD,  GEO.  Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  Ma- 
chinery, and  the  Industrial  Arts.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

DORR,  B.  F.  The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table- 
book.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  greatly  extended. 
With  a  second  appendix  up  to  date.  16mo,  morocco  flaps.  .  $2 . 00 

DRAPER,    C.    H.     An   Elementary   Text-book   of   Light, 

Heat  and  Sound,  with  Numerous  Examples.  Fourth  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 .00 

Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics.     With 

many  illustrations  and  numerical  examples.     12mo,  cloth.  . .   $1 . 50 

DYSON,   S.   S.     Practical  Testing   of  Raw  Materials.     A 

Concise  Handbook  for  Manufacturers,  Merchants,  and  Users  of 
Chemicals,  Oils,  Fuels,  Gas  Residuals  and  By-products,  and 
Paper-making  Materials,  with  Chapters  on  Water  Analysis  and 
the  Testing  of  Trade  Effluents.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrations,  177 
pages net,  $5 . 00 

ECCLES,  R.  G.  (Dr.),  and  DUCKWALL,  E.  W.     Food  Pre- 

servatives:  their  Advantages  and  Proper  Use;  The  Practical 
•versus  the  Theoretical  Side  of  the  Pure  Food  Problem.  8vo, 

paper $0 .50 

Cloth 1 .00 

EDDY,    H.    T.,    Prof.     Researches   in    Graphical    Statics. 

Embracing  New  Constructions  in  Graphical  Statics,  a  New  General 
Method  in  Graphical  Statics,  and  the  Theory  of  Internal  Stress 
in  Graphical  Statics.  8vo,  cloth $1 .50 

• Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads.  Treated 

graphically.     Illustrated.     8vo,  cloth $1 . 50 

EISSLER,  M.     The  Metallurgy  of  Gold.   A  Practical  Treatise 

on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-bearing  Ores,  including 
the  Processes  of  Concentration  and  Chlorination,  and  the  Assay- 
ing, Melting  and  Refining  of  Gold.  Fifth  Edition,  revised  and 
greatly  enlarged.  Over  300  illustrations  and  numerous  folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth $7 . 50 

The  Hydro-Metallurgy  of  Copper.     Being  an  Account 

of  processes  adopted  in  the  Hydro-metallurgical  Treatment  of 
Cupriferous  Ores,  including  the  Manufacture  of  Copper  Vitriol. 
With  chapters  on  the  sources  of  supply  of  Copper  and  the  Roasting 
of  Copper  Ores.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures.  8vo, 
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16  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

EISSLER,    M.      The  Metallurgy  of    Silver.      A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting  and  Lixiviation  of  Silver 
Ores,  including  the  Assaying,  Melting  and  Refining  of  Silver 
Bullion.  124  illustrations.  Second  Edition,  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth. 

$4.00 

-  The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead.     A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Smelting  of  Silver-Lead  Ores  and  the  Refining  of 
Lead  Bullion.  Including  Reports  on  Various  Smelting  Establish- 
ments and  Descriptions  of  Modern  Smelting  Furnaces  and  Plants 
in  Europe  and  America.  With  183  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth, 

$5.00 

Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold  and  its 

Practical  Application  on  the  Witwatersrand  Gold  Fields  in  South 
Africa.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrations  and 
folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth $3 . 00 

A  Handbook  on  Modern  Explosives.  Being  a  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Dynamite,  Gun- 
cotton,  Nitroglycerine,  and  other  Explosive  Compounds,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  Collodion-cotton,  with  chapters  on 
Explosives  in  Practical  Application.  Second  Edition,  enlarged 
with  150  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $5 . 00 

ELIOT,    C.   W.,    and   STORER,   F.   H.    A   Compendious. 

Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Revised  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  authors,  by  Prof.  William  R.  Nichols.  Illus- 
trated. Twentieth  Edition,  newly  revised  by  Prof.  W.  B.  Lindsay. 
12mo,  cloth net,  $1.25 

ELLIOT,    G.   H.,   Maj.     European   Light-house   Systems. 

Being  a  Report  of  a  Tour  of  Inspection  made  in  1873.  51  en- 
gravings and  21  woodcuts.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

ERFURT,  J.     Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.   A  Practical  Treatise 

for  the  use  of  paper-makers,  paper-stainers,  students  and  others, 
With  illustrations  and  157  patterns  of  paper  dyed  in  the  pulp, 
with  formulas  for  each.  Translated  into  English  and  edited, 
with  additions,  by  Julius  Hiibner,  F.C.S.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $7 . 50 

EVERETT,    J.    D.      Elementary    Text-book    of    Physics. 

Illustrated.     Seventh  Edition.     12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

EWING,   A.   J.,   Prof.     The  Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 

and  other  metals.  Third  Edition,  revised.  159  illustrations 
8vo,  cloth $4 , 00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  17 

FAIRIE,  J.,  F.G.S.  Notes  on  Lead  Ores:  Their  Distribu- 
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Notes  on  Pottery  Clays:  The  Distribution,  Properties, 

Uses  and  Analysis  of  Ball  Clays,  China  Clays  and  China  Stone. 
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FANNING,  J.  T.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  and 

Water-supply  Engineering.  Relating  to  the  Hydrology,  Hydro- 
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America.  180  illus.  8vo,  cloth.  Sixteenth  Edition,  revised,  en- 
larged, and  new  tables  and  illustrations  added.  650  pp $5 . 00 

FAY,  I.  W.  The  Coal-tar  Colors:  Their  Origin  and  Chem- 
istry. 8vo,  cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

FERNBACH,  R.  L.  Glue  and  Gelatine ;  a  Practical  Trea- 
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FISH,  J.  C.  L.  Lettering  of  Wo  king  Drawings.  Thir- 
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FISHER,  H.  K.  C.,  and  DARBY,  W.  C.    Students'  Guide 

to  Submarine  Cable  Testing.  Third  (new  and  enlarged)  Edi- 
tion. 8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $3 . 50 

FISHER,  W.  C.  The  Potentiometer  and  its  Adjuncts. 
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FISKE,  B.  A.,  Lieut.,  U.S.N.      Electricity   in  Theory  and 

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FLEISCHMANN,  W.     The  Book  of  the  Dairy.     A  Manual 

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FLEMING,  J.  A.,  Prof.  Th3  Alternate-current  Trans- 
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Centenary    of    the    El  ctrical    Current,     1799-1899. 

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18  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

FLEMING,  J.  A.,  Prof.  Electric  Lamps  and  Electric  Light- 
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FLEURY,  H.  The  Calculus  Without  Limits  or  Infinitesi- 
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FOLEY,    N.,    and    PRAY,    THOS.,    Jr.     The    Mechanical 

Engineers'  Reference  Book  for  Machine  and  Boiler  Construction, 
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FORNEY,  M.  N.     Catechism  of  the  Locomotive.     Second 

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FOSTER,  H.  A.     Electrical  Engineers'  Pocket-book.     With 

the  Collaboration  of  Eminent  Specialists.  A  handbook  of  useful 
data  for  Electricians  and  Electrical  Engineers.  With  innumer- 
able tables,  diagrams,  and  figures.  Third  Edition,  revised 
Pocket  size,  full  leather,  1000  pp $5 . 00 

FOSTER,    J.    G.,    Gen.,    U.S.A.     Submarine    Blasting    in 

Boston  Harbor,  Massachusetts.  Removal  of  Tower  and  Corwin 
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FOSTER,  J.     Treatise  on  the  Evaporation  of  Saccharine, 

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and  Open  Air.  Third  Edition.  Diagrams  and  large  plates. 
Svo,  cloth $7 . 50 

FOX,    WM.,    and    THOMAS,    C.    W.,    M.E.     A    Practical 

Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing.  Second  Edition,  revised.  12mo, 
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FRANCIS,    J.   B.,    C.E.      Lowell    Hydraulic    Experiments. 

Being  a  selection  from  experiments  on  Hydraulic  Motors  on 
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angular section,  and  through  submerged  Orifices  and  diverging 
Tubes.  Made  at  Lowell,  Mass.  Fourth  Edition,  revised  and 
enlarged,  with  many  new  experiments,  and  illustrated  with  23 
copper-plate  engravings  4to,  cloth $15.00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  19 

FRASER,  R.  H.,  and  CLARK,  C.  H.     Marine  Engineering. 

In  Press. 

FULLER,  G.  W.     Report  on  the  Investigations  into  the 

Purification  of  the  Ohio  River  Water  at  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
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Company.  Published  under  agreement  with  the  Directors. 
3  full-page  plates.  4to,  cloth net,  $10 . 00 

FURNELL,  J.      Students'  Manual  of  Paints,  Colors,  Oils 

and  Varnishes.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .00 

GARCKE,    E.,    and    FELLS,    J.    M.     Factory    Accounts: 

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manufacturers,  with  appendices  on  the  nomenclature  of  machine 
details,  the  rating  of  factories,  fire  and  boiler  insurance,  the 
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of  specimen  rulings.  Fifth  Edition,  revised  and  extended.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated $3 . 00 

GEIKIE,  J.     Structural  and  Field  Geology,  for  Students  of 

Pure  and  Applied  Science.  With  figures,  diagrams,  and  half- 
tone plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $4.00 

GERBER,  N.     Chemical  and  Physical  Analysis  of  Milk, 

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GERHARD,     WM.     P.       Sanitary    Engineering.       i2mo, 
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GESCHWIND,  L.     Manufacture  of  Alum  and  Sulphates, 

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cations in  the  Arts,  Manufactures,  Sanitary  Engineering,  Agri- 
culture and  Horticulture.  Translated  from  the  French  by 
Charles  Salter.  With  tables,  figures  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

GIBBS,  W.  E.     Lighting  by  Acetylene,  Generators,  Burners 

and  Electric  Furnaces.  With  66  illustrations.  Second  Edition, 
revised.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

GILLMORE,   Q.  A.,   Gen.     Treatise   on  Limes,  Hydraulic 

Cements  and  Mortars.  Papers  on  Practical  Engineering,  United 
States  Engineer  Department,  No.  9,  containing  Reports  of  nu- 
merous Experiments  conducted  in  New  York  City  during  the 
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20  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

GILLMORE,  Q.  A.,  Gen.  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Con- 
struction of  Roads,  Streets  and  Pavements.  Tenth  Edition.  With 
70  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

Report   on   Strength   of  the   Building  Stones  in   the 

United  States,  etc.     8vo,  illustrated,  cloth $1 .00 

GOLDING,   H.   A.     The   Theta-Phi  Diagram.     Practically 

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illustrated net,  $1 . 25 

GOODEVE,    T.    M.     A   Text-book    on    the    Steam-engine. 

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143  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

GORE,  G.,  F.R.S.     The  Art  of  Electrolytic  Separation  of 

Metals,  etc.  (Theoretical  and  Practical.)  Illustrated.  8vo, 
cloth $3.50 

GOULD,    E.    S.     The    Arithmetic    of    the    Steam-engine. 

8vo,  cloth $1 .00 

Practical    Hydrostatics    and    Hydrostatic   Formulas. 

With  numerous  figures  and  diagrams.  (Van  Nostrand's  Science 
Series.}  16mo,  cloth,  illustrated,  114  pp $0 . 50 

GRAY,   J.,   B.Sc.     Electrical   Influence   Machines:    Their 

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Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  12mo,  cloth,  illus.,  296  pp. .  .  .$2.00 

GREENWOOD,  E.  Classified  Guide  to  Technical  and  Com- 
mercial Books.  Subject  List  of  Principal  British  and  American 
Works  in  print.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

GRIFFITHS,   A.   B.,   Ph.D.     A  Treatise   on   Manures,   or 

the  Philosophy  of  Manuring.  A  Practical  Handbook  for  the 
Agriculturist,  Manufacturer,  and  Student.  12mo,  cloth.  .  .  $3.00 

Dental    Metallurgy.      A    Manual    for    Students    and 

Dentists.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  208  pp net,  $3.50 

GROSS,   E.     Hops,   in   their   Botanical,   Agricultural   and 

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from  the  German  by  Charles  Salter.  With  tables,  diagrams, 
and  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $4.50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  21 

GROVER,    F.     Practical    Treatise    on    Modern    Gas    and 

Oil  Engines.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2 .00 

GRUNER,  A.  Power-loom  Weaving  and  Yarn  Number- 
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as  for  self -instruction,  and  for  general  use  by  those  engaged  in 
the  weaving  industry.  Illustrated  with  colored  diagrams.  8vo, 
cloth net,  $3 . 00 


GURDEN,  R.  L.  Traverse  Tables:  Computed  to  Four- 
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Distance.  For  the  use  of  Surveyors  and  Engineers.  New  Edition. 
Folio,  half  morocco $7 . 50 

GUY,    A.    E.     Experiments    on    the    Flexure    of    Beams, 

resulting  in  the  Discovery  of  New  Laws  of  Failure  by  Buckling. 
Reprinted  from  the  "American  Machinist."  With  diagrams  and 
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A.  F.      Electric  Light  and  Power:   Giving  the  Result 

of  Practical  Experience  in  Central-station  Work.  8vo,  cloth r 
illustrated $2 . 50 


HAEDER,  H.,  C.E.     A  Handbook  on  the  Steam-engine. 

With  especial  reference  to  small  and  medium-sized  engines.  For 
the  use  of  Engine-makers,  Mechanical  Draughtsmen,  Engineer- 
ing Students  and  Users  of  Steam  Power.  Translated  from  the 
German,  with  considerable  additions  and  alterations,  by  H.  H. 
P.  Powles.  Third  English  Edition,  revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated, 458  pages $3 . 00> 

HALL,   C.   H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles. 

8vo,  cloth net,  $2.CO> 


-  W.  S.,  Prof.     Elements   of  the   Differential   and  In- 
tegral Calculus.     Sixth  Edition,  revised.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $2.25 

—  Descriptive  Geometry,  with  Numerous  Problems  and 

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22  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

HALSEY,   F.   A.     Slide-valve   Gears.     An   Explanation   of 

the  Action  and  Construction  of  Plain  and  Cut-off  Slide  Valves. 
Illustrated.     Seventh  Edition.     12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

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Tables.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 .00 

Worm    and    Spiral    Gearing.     Revised   and  Enlarged 

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the   Textile    Industry,"    by   Samuel   S.    Dale.     8vo,    cloth,  illus- 
trated    $1 .00 

HAMILTON,    W.    G.     Useful    Information    for    Railway 

Men.     Tenth  Edition,   revised  and  enlarged.     562  pages,  pocket 
form.     Morocco,  gilt $2 . 00 

HAMMER,  W.  J.  Radium,  and  Other  Radio-active  Sub- 
stances; Polonium,  Actinium  and  Thorium.  With  a  considera- 
tion of  Phosphorescent  and  Fluorescent  Substances,  the  Proper- 
ties and  Applications  of  Selenium,  and  the  treatment  of  disease 
by  the  Ultra-Violet  Light.  Second  Edition.  With  engravings 
and  photographic  plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  72  pp..  .  $1  .00 

HANCOCK,  H.  Text-book  of  Mechanics  and  Hydro- 
statics, with  over  500  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth net,  $1 . 50 

HARDY,    E.     Elementary   Principles    of   Graphic    Statics. 

Containing  192  diagrams.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 .50 

HARRISON,    W.    B.     The    Mechanics'    Tool-book.     With 

Practical    Rules   and   Suggestions   for   use    of   Machinists,    Iron- 
workers and  others.     With  44  engravings.     12mo,  cloth.  . .  .$1 .50 

HART,  J.  W.     External  Plumbing  Work.    A  Treatise  on 

Lead   Work   for  Roofs.     With  numerous  figures  and   diagrams. 

8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  S3 .00 

i 

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cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  23 

HART,   J.    W.     Principles     of    Hot-water    Supply.     With 

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-  Sanitary   Plumbing    and    Drainage.    With  numerous 

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HASKINS,    C.    H.     The    Galvanometer   and   its   Uses.     A 

Manual  for  Electricians  and  Students.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo. 
cloth  ................................................  $1.50 

HAUFF,  W.  A.     American  Multiplier:   Multiplications  and 

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000;  also  tables  of  circumferences  and  areas  of  circles.  Cloth, 

$5.00 


HAUSBRAND,  E.     Drying  by  Means  of  Air  and  Steam. 

With  explanations,  formulas,  and  tables,  for  use  in  practice. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  A.  C.  Wright,  M.A.  12mo, 
cloth,  illustrated  ...................................  net,  $2  .  00 

--  Evaporating,    Condensing    and    Cooling     Apparatus: 

Explanations,  Formula,  and  Tables  for  Use  in  Practice.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Second  Revised  German  Edition  by  A.  C.  Wright, 
M.A.  With  numerous  figures,  tables  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated,  400  pages  ...............................  net,  $5.  00 

HAUSNER,    A.     Manufacture    of    Preserved    Foods    and 

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Herbert  Robson,  B.Sc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated  ........  net,  $3.00 

HAWKE,  W.  H.     The  Premier  Cipher  Telegraphic  Code, 

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most  useful  general  code  yet  published.  4to,  cloth  .......  $5.00 

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All  the  words  are  selected  from  the  official  vocabulary.  Oblong 
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HAWKESWORTH,    J.     Graphical    Handbook    for    Rein- 

forced Concrete  Design.  A  series  of  plates,  showing  graphically, 
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with  practical  examples  showing  the  method  of  using  each  plate. 
8vo,  cloth  .........................................  In  Press. 


24  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

HAWKINS,   C.   C.,   and  WALLIS,  F.     The  Dynamo:    its 

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cloth.  : net,  $3.00 

HAY,  A.  Alternating  Currents;  Their  Theory,  Genera- 
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-  Principles  of  Alternate-current  Working.  i2mo, 
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HEAP,    D.    P.,    Major,    U.S.A.      Electrical   Appliances    of 

the  Present  Day.  Report  of  the  Paris  Electrical  Exposition  of 
1881.  250  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth $2.00 

HEAVISIDE,  0.  Electromagnetic  Theory.  8vo,  cloth, 
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HECK,  R.  C.  H.     Steam-Engine  and  Other  Steam  Motors. 

A  text-book  for  engineering  colleges  and  a  treatise  for  engineers. 
Vol.  I.  The  Thermodynamics  and  the  Mechanics  of  the  Engine. 
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HEDGES,  K.  Modern  Lightning  Conductors.  An  Illus- 
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HENRICI,  O.  Skeleton  Structures,  Applied  to  the  Build- 
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HERMANN,   F.     Painting    on    Glass   and   Porcelain   and 

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HERRMANN,   G.     The   Graphical   Statics   of  Mechanism. 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  25 

HERZFELD,  J.,  Dr.     The  Technical  Testing  of  Yarns  and 

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HEWSON,    W.     Principles    and    Practice    of    Embanking 

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HOBBS,  W.  R.  P.  The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measure- 
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HOFF,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas.     A 

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HOFF,  WM.  B.,  Com.,  U.S.N.  The  Avoidance  of  Collisions 
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HOLMES,  A.  B.     The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained. 

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HOUSTON,  E.  J.,  and  KENNELLY,  A.  E.     Algebra  Made 

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HOWORTH,    J.     Art    of   Repairing   and    Riveting    Glass, 

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HUBBARD,  E.  The  Utilization  of  Wood-waste.  A  Com- 
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HUMBER,  W.,  C.E.     A  Handy  Book  for  the  Calculation 

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HURST,  G.  H.,  F.C.S.     Color.     A  Handbook  of  the  Theory 

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Dictionary    of    Chemicals    and    Raw    Products    Used 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  27 

HURST,  G.H.,  F.C.S.     Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases : 

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W.  B.     Patents   and   How   to  Make   Money   out   of 

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BUTTON,  W.  S.     Steam-boiler  Construction.     A  Practical 

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INGLE,    H.     Manual    of    Agricultural    Chemistry.     8vo, 

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INNES,    C.    H.     Problems   in    Machine    Design.     For   the 

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ISHERWOOD,  B.  F.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam 

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JAMIESON,  A.,  C.E.  A  Text-book  on  Steam  and  Steam- 
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JANNETTAZ,  E.     A  Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks : 

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JEHL,  F.,  Mem.  A.I.E.E.      The  Manufacture  of  Carbons 

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JENNISON,   F.  H.     The   Manufacture   of  Lake  Pigments 

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JOCKIN,  WM.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith. 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  29 

JOHNSON,  W.  McA.    "The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel."  In  Press. 
JOHNSTON,  J.  F.  W.,  Prof.,  and  CAMERON,  Sir  Chas. 

Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology.  Seventeenth 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 60 

JONES,    H.    C.       Outlines    of    Electrochemistry.       With 

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JOYNSON,    F.    H.     The    Metals    Used    in     Construction. 

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Designing    and    Construction    of    Machine     Gearing. 

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JUPTNER,  H.   F.  V.     Siderology:    The  Science  of  Iron. 

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KANSAS    CITY    BRIDGE,    THE.     With    an    Account    of 

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KAPP,    G.,    C.E.     Electric   Transmission    of   Energy   and 

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Dynamos,  Motors,  Alternators  and  Rotary  Con- 
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8vo,  cloth,  507  pages $4 .00 

KEIM,   A.   W.      Prevention    of    Dampness    in    Buildings. 

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KELSEY,    W.    R.      Continuous-current      Dynamos    and 

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revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 50 

KEMPE,   H.   R.     The   Electrical   Engineer's   Pocket-book 

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KENNEDY,  R.     Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators. 

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KINGDON,   J.   A.     Applied  Magnetism.     An  Introduction 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  31 

KINZBRUNNER,  C.     Alternate  Current  Windings;    Their 

Theory  and  Construction.  A  Handbook  for  Students,  Designers, 
and  all  Practical  Men.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .50 

Continuous  Current  Armatures ;    Their  Winding  and 

Construction.  A  Handbook  for  Students,  Designers,  and  all 
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KIRKALDY,    W.    G.     Illustrations    of    David    Kirkaldy's 

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him  during  a  Quarter  of  a  Century.  Comprising  a  Large  Selec- 
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ties of  Materials  used  in  Construction,  with  Explanatory  Text 
and  Historical  Sketch.  Numerous  engravings  and  25  lithographed 
plates.  4to,  cloth $10 .00 

KIRKBRIDE,   J.     Engraving  for  Illustration:    Historical 

and  Practical  Notes,  with  illustrations  and  2  plates  by  ink 
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KIRKWOOD,   J.   P.     Report   on   the   Filtration   of  River 

Waters  for  the  Supply  of  Cities,  as  practised  in  Europe,  made 
to  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  St.  Louis. 
Illustrated  by  30  double-page  engravings.  4to,  cloth  ....  $7 . 50 

KLEIN,    J.    F.      Design    of    a   High-speed   Steam-engine. 

With  notes,  diagrams,  formulas  and  tables.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. .  net,  $5.00 

KLEINHANS,  F.  B.  Boiler  Construction.  A  Practical  ex- 
planation of  the  best  modern  methods  of  Boiler  Construction, 
from  the  laying  out  of  sheets  to  the  completed  Boiler.  With 
diagrams  and  full-page  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated.. $3. 00 

KNIGHT,  A.  M.,  Lieut.-Com.  U.S.N.  Modern  Seaman- 
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cloth,  illustrated.     Second  Edition,  revised net,  $6 .00 

Half  morocco $7 . 50 

KNOTT,  C.  G.,  and  MACKAY,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics. 

With  numerous  examples,  figures  and  diagrams.  New  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 

KOLLER,    T.     The    Utilization    of    Waste    Products.     A 

Treatise  on  the  Rational  Utilization,  Recovery  and  Treatment 
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second  revised  edition.  With  numerous  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $3 . 50 


32  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

KOLLER,  T.    Cosmetics.   A  Handbook  of  the  Manufacture, 

Employment  and  Testing  of  all  Cosmetic  Materials  and  Cosmetic 
Specialties.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Chas.  Salter.  8vo. 
cloth net,  $2.50 

KRAUCH,    C.,    Dr.     Testing    of    Chemical    Reagents    for 

Purity.  Authorized  translation  of  the  Third  Edition,  by  J.  A. 
Williamson  and  L.  W.  Dupre.  With  additions  and  emendations 
by  the  author.  8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

LAMBERT,   T.     Lead,  and  its  Compounds.    With  tables, 

diagrams  and  folding  plates.     8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 50 

Bone     Products     and     Manures.      An     Account     of 

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Animal  Charcoal,  Size,  Gelatine  and  Manures.  With  plans  and 
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LAMBORN,  L.  L.     Cottonseed  Products :  A  Manual  of  the 

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Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin.     A   practical 

manual  of  modern  methods  of  utilization  of  Fats  and  Oils  in  the 
manufacture  of  Soaps  and  Candles,  and  the  recovery  of  Glycerin. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $7 . 50 

LAMPRECHT,    R.     Recovery   Work   after   Pit   Fires.     A 

description  of  the  principal  methods  pursued,  especially  in  fiery 
mines,  and  of  the  various  appliances  employed,  such  as  respira- 
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diagrams.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Charles  Salter.  Svo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $4 . 00 

LARRABEE,  C.  S.  Cipher  and  Secret  Letter  and  Tele- 
graphic Code,  with  Hog's  Improvements.  The  most  perfect 
Secret  Code  ever  invented  or  discovered.  Impossible  to  read 
without  the  key.  18mo,  cloth 60 

LASSAR-COHN,  Dr.  An  Introduction  to  Modern  Scien- 
tific Chemistry,  in  the  form  of  popular  lectures  suited  to  University 
Extension  Students  and  general  readers.  Translated  from  the 
author's  corrected  proofs  for  the  second  German  edition,  by 
M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  M.A.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  33 

LATTA,  M.  N.     Gas  Engineering  Practice.     With  figures, 

diagrams  and  tables,     bvo,  ciotn,  illustrated in  Press. 

LEASK,  A.  R.     Breakdowns  at  Sea  and  How  to  Repair 

Them.     With  89  illustrations.     Second  Edition.     8vo,  cloth.  $2 . 00 

Triple  and  Quadruple  Expansion  Engines  and  Boilers 

and  their  Management.  With  59  illustrations.  Third  Edition, 
revised.  12mo,  cloth $2. 00 

Refrigerating  Machinery:  Its  Principles  and  Man- 
agement. With  64  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

LECKY,    S.    T.    S.     "Wrinkles"    in    Practical   Navigation. 

With  130  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth.  Fourteenth  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged $8 . 00 

LEFEVRE,  L.     Architectural  Pottery:  Bricks,  Tiles,  Pipes, 

Enameled  Terra-Cottas,  Ordinary  and  Incrusted  Quarries,  Stone- 
ware Mosaics,  Faiences  and  Architectural  Stoneware.  With 
tables,  plates  and  950  cuts  and  illustrations.  With  a  preface  by 
M.  J.-C.  Formige.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  K.  H.  Bird, 
M.A.,  and  W.  Moore  Binns.  4to,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $7. 50 

LEHNER,  S.  Ink  Manufacture :  including  Writing,  Copy- 
ing, Lithographic,  Marking,  Stamping  and  Laundry  Inks.  Trans- 
lated from  the  fifth  German  edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and 
Herbert  Robson,  B.Sc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2.50 

LEMSTROM,  Dr.  Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticul- 
ture. Illustrated. , net,  $1 . 50 

LEVY,  C.  L.  Electric-light  Primer.  A  simple  and  com- 
prehensive digest  of  all  the  most  important  facts  connected  with 
the  running  of  the  dynamo,  and  electric  lights,  with  precautions 
for  safety.  For  the  use  of  persons  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after 
the  plant.  Svo,  paper 50 

LIVERMORE,  V.  P.,  and  WILLIAMS,  J.     How  to  Become 

a  Competent  Motorman.  Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Proper  Method  of  Operating  a  Street  Railway  Motor  Car;  also 
giving  details  how  to  overcome  certain  defects.  16mo,  cloth, 
illustrated,  132  pages $1 . 00 


34  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

LOBBEN,  P.,  M.E.  Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Hand- 
book, containing  Tables,  Rules,  and  Formulas,  with  numerous 
examples,  explaining  the  principles  of  mathematics  and  mechanics, 
as  applied  to  the  mechanical  trades.  Intended  as  a  reference  book 
for  all  interested  in  Mechanical  work.  Illustrated  with  many 
cuts  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth $2. 50 

LOCKE,  A.   G.   and  C.   G.     A  Practical    Treatise  on   the 

Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid.  With  77  constructive  plates, 
drawn  to  scale  measurements,  and  other  illustrations.  Royal 
8vo,  cloth.  $10 . 00 

LOCKERT,  L.     Petroleum  Motor-cars.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50 

LCCKWOOD,  T.  D.  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro- 
telegraphy.  A  Practical  Guide  for  Students,  Operators,  and 
Inspectors.  8vo,  cloth.  Third  Edition $2.50 

Electrical  Measurement  and  the   Galvanometer:    its 

Construction  and  Uses.  Second  Edition.  32  illustrations.  12mo, 
cloth $1 .50 

LODGE,  0.  J.  Elementary  Mechanics,  including  Hydro- 
statics and  Pneumatics.  Revised  Edition.  12mo,  cloth  ...  $1 .  50 

Signalling  Across    Space,   Without    Wires :     being   a 

description  of  the  work  of  Hertz  and  his  successors.  With  numer- 
ous diagrams  and  half-tone  cuts,  and  additional  remarks  con- 
cerning the  application  to  Telegraphy  and  later  developments. 
Third  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2.00 

LORD,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics.     A  Valuable 

Book  with  designs  and  illustrations  for  manufacturers  and  de- 
signers of  Carpets,  Damask,  Dress  and  all  Textile  Fabrics.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 50 

LORING,    A.   E.      A   Handbook    of   the   Electro-magnetic 

Telegraph.     16mo,  cloth,  boards.     New  and  enlarged  edition.  .    .50 

LUCE,  S.  B.  (Com.,  U.  S.  N.).     Text-book  of  Seamanship. 

The  Equipping  and  Handling  of  Vessels  under  Sail  or  Steam. 
For  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.  Revised  and  enlarged 
edition,  by  Lieut.  Wm.  S.  Benson.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. $10. 00 

LUCKE,   C.   E.     Gas  Engine   Design.     With  figures  and 

diagrams.     Second  Edition,  revised.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $3 . 00 

Power,   Cost  and  Plant  Designs   and   Construction. 

In  Press. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  35 

LUCKE,  C.  E.     Power  Plant  Papers.     Form  I.     The  Steam 

Power  Plant.     Pamphlet  (8X13) net,  $1 . 50 

LUNGE,   G.,   Ph.D.      Coal-tar  and  Ammonia:    being  the 

third  and  enlarged  edition  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Distillation  of 
Coal-tar  and  Ammoniacal  Liquor,"  with  numerous  tables,  figures 
and  diagrams.  Thick  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $15.00 

A  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Man- 
ufacture of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali  with  the  Collateral  Branches. 

Vol.  I.  Sulphuric  Acid.   In  two  parts,  not  sold  separately. 

Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.   342  illus.   8vo,  cloth.  .  $15.00' 

Vol.  II.   Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric   Acid   and  Leblanc 

Soda.     Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     8vo,  cloth ...  $15 . 00 

-  Vol.  III.    Ammonia  Soda,  and  various  other  processes 

of  Alkali-making,  and  the  preparation  of  Alkalis,  Chlorine  and 
Chlorates,  by  Electrolysis.  8vo,  cloth.  New  Edition,  1896.  .  $15.00' 

and  HURTER,  F.      The   Alkali  Maker's  Handbook, 

Tables  and  Analytical  Methods  for  Manufacturers  of  Sulphuric 
Acid,  Nitric  Acid,  Soda,  Potash  and  Ammonia.  Second  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth $3.00 

LUPTON,  A.,  PARR,  G.  D.  A.,  and  PERKIN,  H.  Elec- 
tricity as  Applied  to  Mining.  With  tables,  diagrams  and  folding 
plates.  Second  Eaition,  revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated   net,  $4 . 50 

LUQUER,  L.  M.,  Ph.D.  (Columbia  Univ.).  Minerals  in 
Rock  Sections.  The  Practical  Method  of  Identifying  Minerals  in 
Rock  Sections  with  the  Microscope.  Especially  arranged  for 
Students  in  Technical  and  Scientific  Schools.  Revised  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

MACKIE,   JOHN.     How   to   Make    a   Woolen   Mill   Pay. 

8vo,  cloth net,  $2 . 00 

MACKROW,  C.     The  Naval  Architect's  and  Ship-builder's 

Pocket-book  of  Formulae,  Rules,  and  Tables;  and  Engineers'  and 
Surveyors'  Handy  Book  of  Reference.  Eighth  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.  16mo,  limp  leather,  illustrated $5.00 

MAGUIRE,   E.,    Capt.,   U.S.A.     The   Attack   and  Defence 

of  Coast  Fortifications.  With  maps  and  numerous  illustrations, 
8vo,  cloth $2. 50 


36  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

MAGUIRE,    WM.    R.     Domestic    Sanitary    Drainage    and 

Plumbing  Lectures  on  Practical  Sanitation.  332  illustrations. 
8vo $4.00 

MAILLOUX,    C.    0.      Electro-traction    Machinery.      8vo, 

cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

MARKS,  E.    C.   R.     Notes  on  the  Construction  of  Cranes 

and  sifting  Machinery.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures. 
New  and  enlarged  edition.  12mo,  cloth net,  $1.50 

Notes  on  the  Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps. 

With  figures,  diagrams  and  engravings.  12mo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $1 . 50 

-  G.  C.     Hydraulic    Power    Engineering.     A  Practical 

Manual  on  the  Concentration  and  Transmission  of  Power  by  Hy- 
draulic Machinery.  With  over  200  diagrams  and  tables  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated $3 . 50 

MARSH,  C.  F.     Reinforced  Concrete.     With  full-page  and 

folding  plates,  and  512  figures  and  diagrams.  4to,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $7 .00 

MAVER,  W.     American  Telegraphy:    Systems,  Apparatus, 

Operation.     450  illustrations.     8vo,  cloth $5 . 00 

MAYER,  A.  M.,  Prof.     Lecture  Notes  on  Physics.     8vo, 
cloth $2 . 00 

McCULLOCH,  R.  S.,  Prof.     Elementary  Treatise  on  the 

Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat,  and  its  application  to  Air  and  Steam- 
engines.  8vo,  cloth $3 . 50 

McINTOSH,  J.  G.   Technology  of  Sugar.   A  Practical  Treatise 

on  the  Manufacture  of  Sugar  from  the  Sugar-cane  and  Sugar- 
beet.  With  diagrams  and  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated .  net,  $4 . 50 

Manufacture   of  Varnishes   and   Kindred  Industries. 

Based  on  and  including  the  "Drying  Oils  and  Varnishes,"  of 
Ach.  Livache.  Volume  I.  Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling, 
Manufacture  of  Linoleum,  Printing  and  Lithographic  Inks,  and 
India-rubber  Substitutes.  Second  greatly  enlarged  English  Edi- 

I         tion.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 50 

\        (To  be  complete  in  three  volumes.) 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  37 

McNEILL,    B.     McNeill's    Code.     Arranged    to    meet    the 

requirements  of  Mining,  Metallurgical  and  Civil  Engineers,  Direc- 
tors of  Mining,  Smelting  and  other  Companies,  Bankers,  Stock 
and  Share  Brokers,  Solicitors,  Accountants,  Financiers  and 
General  Merchants.  Safety  and  Secrecy.  8vo,  cloth.  ...  $6 . 00 

McPHERSON,    J.    A.,    A.    M.    Inst.    C.    E.     Waterworks 

Distribution.  A  practical  guide  to  the  laying  out  of  systems  of 
distributing  mains  for  the  supply  of  water  to  cities  and  towns 
With  tables,  folding  plates  and  numerous  full-page  diagrams 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $2. 50 

MERCK,  E.     Chemical  Reagents:  Their  Purity  and  Tests. 

In  Press. 

MERRITT,  WM.  H.     Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Prospectors  and  Miners.  With  numerous 
half-tone  cuts,  figures  and  tables.  16mo,  limp  leather,  illus- 
trated   SI .50 

METAL  TURNING.  By  a  Foreman  Pattern-maker.  Illus- 
trated with  81  engravings.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

MICHELL,  S.  Mine  Drainage:  being  a  Complete  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  Direct-acting  Underground  Steam  Pumping 
Machinery.  Containing  many  folding  plates,  diagrams  and 
tables.  Second  Edition,  rewritten  and  enlarged.  Thick  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated $10 . 00 

MIERZINSKI,  S.,  Dr.  Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson. 
With  diagrams  and  figures.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated.  .  .  net,  $2.50 

MILLER,  E.  H.  (Columbia  Univ.).     Quantitative  Analysis 

for  Mining  Engineers.    8vo,  cloth net,  $1 . 50 

MINIFIE,    W.     Mechanical    Drawing.     A    Text-book    of 

Geometrical  Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools,  in 
which  the  Definitions  and  Rules  of  Geometry  are  familiarly  ex- 
plained; the  Practical  Problems  are  arranged  from  the  most 
simple  to  the  more  complex,  and  in  their  description  technicalities 
are  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  With  illustrations  for  drawing 
Plans,  Sections,  and  Elevations  of  Railways  and  Machinery;  an 
Introduction  to  Isometrical  Drawing,  and  an  Essay  on  Linear 
Perspective  and  Shadows.  Illustrated  with  over  200  diagrams 
engraved  on  steel.  Tenth  Thousand,  revised.  With  an  Appen- 
dix on  the  Theory  and  Application  of  Colors.  8vo,  cloth.  .  $4.00 


38  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

MINIFIE,  W.     Geometrical  Drawing.     Abridged  from  the 

octavo  edition,  for  the  use  of  schools.  Illustrated  with  48  steel 
plates.  Ninth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

MODERN   METEOROLOGY.     A   Series    of   Six   Lectures, 

delivered  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meteorological  Society  in 
1870.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

MOORE,  E.  C.  S.  New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solu- 
tion of  Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  Formula  for  the  flow  of  liquids  in 
open  channels,  pipes,  sewers  and  conduits.  In  two  parts.  Part  I, 
arranged  for  1080  inclinations  from  1  over  1  to  1  over  21,120  for 
fifteen  different  values  of  (n).  Part  II,  for  use  with  all  other 
values  of  (n).  With  large  folding  diagram.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $5 . 00 

MOREING,  C.  A.,  and  NEAL,  T.     New  General  and  Mining 

Telegraph  Code.  676  pages,  alphabetically  arranged.  For  the 
use  of  mining  companies,  mining  engineers,  stock  brokers,  financial 
agents,  and  trust  and  finance  companies.  Eighth  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth $5 . 00 

MOSES,  A.  J.  The  Characters  of  Crystals.  An  Intro- 
duction to  Physical  Crystallography,  containing  321  illustrations 
and  diagrams.  8vo net,  $2 . 00 

and    PARSONS,    C.    L.     Elements    of    Mineralogy, 

Crystallography  and  Blowpipe  Analysis  from  a  Practical  Stand- 
point. Third  Enlarged  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  336  illustrations, 

net,  $2.50 

MOSS,  S.  A.     Elements  of  Gas  Engine  Design.    Reprint 

of  a  Set  of  Notes  accompanying  a  Course  of  Lectures  delivered 
at  Cornell  University  in  1902.  16mo,  cloth,  illustrated.  (Van 
Nostrand's  Science  Series) $0 . 50 

MOSS,  S.  A.     The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.     (Van 

Nostrand's  Science  Series.)     16mo,  cloth,  illustrated $0.50 

MULLIN,  J.  P.,  M.E.  Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern- 
making.  A  Practical  Treatise  upon  Pattern-shop  and  Foundry 
Work:  embracing  the  Moulding  of  Pulleys,  Spur  Gears,  Worm 
Gears,  Balance-wheels,  Stationary  Engine  and  Locomotive 
Cylinders,  Globe  Valves,  Tool  Work,  Mining  Machinery,  Screw 
Propellers,  Pattern-shop  Machinery,  and  the  latest  improve- 
ments in  English  and  American  Cupolas;  together  with  a- large 
collection  of  original  and  carefully  selected  Rules  and  Tables 
for  every-day  use  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern-shop  and  Foundry. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  39 

MUNRO,  J.,  C.E.,  and  JAMIESON,  A.,  C.E.     A  Pocket- 

book  of  Electrical  Rules  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  Electricians 
and  Engineers.  Fifteenth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  With 
numerous  diagrams.  Pocket  size.  Leather $2 . 50 

MURPHY,  J.  G.,  M.E.     Practical  Mining.     A  Field  Manual 

for  Mining  Engineers.  With  Hints  for  Investors  in  Mining 
Properties.  16mo,  cloth $1 . 00 

NAQUET,  A.     Legal  Chemistry.     A  Guide  to  the  Detection 

of  Poisons,  Falsification  of  Writings,  Adulteration  of  Alimentary 
and  Pharmaceutical  Substances,  Analysis  of  Ashes,  and  Exami- 
nation of  Hair,  Coins,  Arms  and  Stains,  as  applied  to  Chemical 
Jurisprudence,  for  the  use  of  Chemists,  Physicians,  Lawyers, 
Pharmacists  and  Experts.  Translated,  with  additions,  including 
a  list  of  books  and  memoirs  on  Toxicology,  etc.,  from  the  French, 
by  J.  P.  Battershall,  Ph.D.,  with  a  Preface  by  C.  F.  Chandler, 
Ph.D.,  M.D.,  LL.D.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

NASMITH,    J.     The    Student's    Cotton    Spinning.     Third 

Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  622  pages,  250  illus- 
trations   $3 . 00 

NEUBURGER,    H.,    and   NOALHAT,    H.     Technology   of 

Petroleum.  The  Oil  Fields  of  the  World:  their  History,  Geog- 
raphy and  Geology.  Annual  Production,  Prospection  and  Develop- 
ment; Oil-well  Drilling;  Transportation  of  Petroleum  by  Land 
and  Sea.  Storage  of  Petroleum.  With  153  illustrations  and  25 
plates.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  John  Geddes  Mclntosh. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $10 .00 

NEWALL,  J.  W.     Plain  Practical  Directions  for  Drawing, 

Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears,  showing  how  the  Teeth  may 
be  cut  in  a  Plain  Milling  Machine  or  Gear  Cutter  so  as  to  give 
them  a  correct  shape  from  end  to  end;  and  showing  how  to  get 
out  all  particulars  for  the  Workshop  without  making  any  Draw- 
ings. Including  a  Full  Set  of  Tables  of  Reference.  Folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth $1 . 50 

NEWLANDS,  J.     The  Carpenters1  and  Joiners'  Assistant: 

being  a  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  the  Selection,  Preparation 
and  Strength  of  Materials,  and  the  Mechanical  Principles  of 
Framing,  with  their  application  in  Carpentry,  Joinery  and 
Hand-railing;  also,  a  Complete  Treatise  on  Sines;  and  an  Illus- 
trated Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Architecture  and  Building. 
Illustrated.  Folio,  half  morocco $15.00 


40  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

NIPHER,  F.  E.,  A.M.     Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements, 

with  an  Appendix  on  the  Method  of  Least  Squares.  12mo, 
cloth $1 . 00 

NOLL,  AUGUSTUS.     How  to  Wire  Buildings:    A  Manual 

of  the  Art  of  Interior  Wiring.  With  many  illustrations.  Fourt'i 
Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 50 

NUGENT,  E.  Treatise  on  Optics;  or,  Light  and  Sight 
Theoretically  and  Practically  Treated,  with  the  Application  to 
Fine  Art  and  Industrial  Pursuits.  With  103  illustrations.  12mo, 
cloth $1 . 50 

O'CONNOR,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocket-book.  Com- 
prising Tables,  Notes  and  Memoranda  relating  to  the  Manu- 
facture, Distribution  and  Use  of  Coal-gas  and  the  Construction 
of  Gas-works.  Second  Edition,  revised.  12mo,  full  leather,  gilt 
edges $3 .50 

OLSEN,  J.  C.,  Prof.     Text-book  of  Quantitative  Chemical 

Analysis  by  Gravimetric,  Electrolytic,  Volumetric  and  Gasometric 
Methods.  With  Seventy-two  Laboratory  Exercises  giving  the 
Analysis  of  Pure  Salts,  Alloys,  Minerals  and  Technical  Products. 
With  numerous  figures  and  diagrams.  Second  Edition,  revised. 
8vo,  cloth. net,  $4.00 

OSBORN,  F.  C.     Tables  of  Moments  of  Inertia,  and  Squares 

of  Radii  of  Gyration;  supplemented  by  others  on  the  Ultimate 
and  Safe  Strength  of  Wrought-iron  Columns,  Safe  Strength  of 
Timber  Beams,  and  Constants  for  readily  obtaining  the  Shearing 
Stresses,  Reactions  and  Bending  Moments  in  Swing  Bridges. 
Fifth  Edition.  12mo,  leather net,  $3.00 

OUDIN,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems. 
With  many  diagrams  and  figures.  Third  Edition,  thoroughly 
revised.  Fully  illustrated $3 .00 

PALAZ,  A.,  Sc.D.     A  Treatise  on  Industrial  Photometry, 

with  special  application  to  Electric  Lighting.  Authorized  trans- 
lation from  the  French  by  George  W.  Patterson,  Jr.  Second 
Edition,  revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $4.00 

PAMELY,  C.  Colliery  Manager's  Handbook.  A  Compre- 
hensive treatise  on  the  Laying-out  and  Working  of  Collieries. 
Designed  as  a  book  of  reference  for  colliery  managers  and  for  the 
use  of  coal-mining  students  preparing  for  first-class  certificates. 
Fifth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Containing  over  1,000  dia- 
grams, plans,  and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. . net,  $10.00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  41 

PARR,  G.  D.  A.  Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instru- 
ments, for  Commercial  and  Laboratory  Purposes.  With  370 
diagrams  and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.50 

PARRY,  E.  J.,  B.Sc.      The   Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils 

and  Artificial  Perfumes.  Being  an  attempt  to  group  together 
the  more  important  of  the  published  facts  connected  with  the 
subject;  also  giving  an  outline  of  the  principles  involved  in  the 
preparation  and  analysis  of  Essential  Oils.  With  numerous  dia- 
grams and  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5.00 

-  and  COSTE,  J.  H.      Chemistry  of  Pigments.     With 

tables  and  figures.     8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

PARRY,  L.  A.,  M.D.     The  Risks  and  Dangers  of  Various 

Occupations  and  their  Prevention.  A  book  that  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  manufacturers,  the  medical  profession,  sanitary 
inspectors,  medical  officers  of  health,  managers  of  works,  foremen 
and  workmen.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

PARSHALL,    H.    F.,    and  HOBART,    H.    M.      Armature 

Windings  of  Electric  Machines.  With  140  full-page  plates,  65 
tables  and  165  pages  of  descriptive  letter-press.  4to,  cloth.  $7.50 

-  and  PARRY,  E.     Electrical  Equipment  of  Tramways. 

In  Press. 

PASSMORE,  A.  C.     Handbook  of  Technical  Terms  used 

in  Architecture  and  Building,  and  their  Allied  Trades  and  Sub- 
jects. 8vo,  cloth net,  $3 .  .50 

PATERSON,   D.,   F.C.S.      The   Color  Printing   of   Carpet 

Yarns.  A  useful  manual  for  color  chemists  and  textile  printers. 
With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated .  .  .  net,  $3 . 50 

-  Color  Matching  on  Textiles.     A  Manual  intended  for 

the  use  of  Dyers,  Calico  Printers,  and  Textile  Color  Chemists. 
Containing  colored  frontispiece  and  9  illustrations,  and  14  dyed 
patterns  in  appendix.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 00 

-  The  Science  of  Color  Mixing.      A  Manual  intended 

for  the  use  of  Dyers,  Calico  Printers,  and  Color  Chemists.  With 
figures,  tables,  and  colored  plate.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated .  net,  $3 . 00 

PATTEN,    J.      A   Plan    for   Increasing   the    Humidity   of 

the  Arid  Region  and  the  Utilization  of  Some  of  the  Great  Rivers 
of  the  United  States  for  Power  and  other  Purposes.  A  paper 
communicated  to  the  National  Irrigation  Congress,  Ogden,  Utah. 
Sept.  12,  1903.  4to,  pamphlet,  20  pages,  with  7  maps.  .  .  $1 .00 


42  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

PATTON,     H.     B.      Lecture    Notes    on     Crystallography 

Revised  Edition,  largely  rewritten.  Prepared  for  use  of  the  stu- 
dents at  the  Colorado  School  of  Mines.  With  blank  pages  for 
note-taking.  8vo,  cloth net  $1 . 25 

PAULDING,  C.  P.  Practical  Laws  and  Data  on  the  Con- 
densation of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare  Pipes;  to  which  is  added 
a  translation  of  Pe"clet's  "Theory  and  Experiments  on  the  Trans- 
mission of  Heat  Through  Insulating  Materials."  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated,  102  pages net,  $2 . 00 

-  Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage  Insula- 
tion: Formulas,  Principles,  and  Data  Relating  to  Insulation  of 
Every  Kind.  A  Manual  for  refrigerating  engineers.  With  tables 
and  diagrams.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .00 

PEIRCE,  B.  System  of  Analytic  Mechanics.  4to, 
cloth $10.00 

PERRINE,  F.  A.  C.,  A.M.,  D.Sc.  Conductors  for  Elec- 
trical Distribution:  their  Manufacture  and  Materials,  the  Calcu- 
lation of  Circuits,  Pole  Line  Construction,  Underground  Working 
and  other  Uses.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  engravings.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated,  287  pages net,  $3 . 50 

PERRY,  J.      Applied  Mechanics.     A  Treatise  for  the  Use 

of  students  who  have  time  to  work  experimental,  numerical,  and 
graphical  exercises  illustrating  the  subject.  8vo,  cloth,  650 
pages net,  $2 . 50 

PHILLIPS,     J.       Engineering     Chemistry.      A     Practical 

Treatise  for  the  use  of  Analytical  Chemists,  Engineers,  Iron 
Masters,  Iron  Founders,  students  and  others.  Comprising  methods 
of  Analysis  and  Valuation  of  the  principal  materials  used  in 
Engineering  works,  with  numerous  Analyses,  Examples,  and 
Suggestions.  Illustrated.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

Gold  Assaying.      A  Practical  Handbook  giving   the 

Modus  Operandi  for  the  Accurate  Assay  of  Auriferous  Ores  and 
Bullion,  and  the  Chemical  Tests  required  in  the  Processes  of 
Extraction  by  Amalgamation,  Cyanidation,  and  Chlorination. 
With  an  appendix  of  tables  and  statistics  and  numerous  diagrams 
and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2 . 50 

PHIN,  J.     Seven  Follies  of  Science.     A  Popular  Account 

of  the  most  famous  scientific  impossibilities  and  the  attempts 
which  have  been  made  to  solve  them;  to  which  is  added  a  small 
Budget  of  Interesting  Paradoxes,  Illusions,  and  Marvels.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .25 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  43 

PICKWORTH,  C.  N.  The  Indicator  Handbook.  A  Prac- 
tical Manual  for  Engineers.  Part  I.  The  Indicator:  its  Con- 
struction and  Application.  81  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth.  $1.50 

-  The  Indicator  Handbook.      Part  II.      The  Indicator 

Diagram:  its  Analysis  and  Calculation.  With  tables  and  figures. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 50 

-  Logarithms  for  Beginners.     8vo,  boards $0.50 

-  The  Slide  Rule.     A  Practical  Manual  of  Instruction  for 

all  Users  of  the  Modern  Type  of  Slide  Rule,  containing  Succinct 
Explanation  of  the  Principle  of  Slide-rule  Computation,  together 
with  Numerous  Rules  and  Practical  Illustrations,  exhibiting  the 
Application  of  the  Instrument  to  the  Every-day  Work  of  the 
Engineer — Civil,  Mechanical  and  Electrical.  Seventh  Edition. 
12mo,  flexible  cloth $1 .00 

Plane  Table,  The.  Its  Uses  in  Topographical  Survey- 
ing. From  the  Papers  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 

Illustrated.     8vo,  cloth $2 . 00 

"This  work  gives  a  description  of  the  Plane  Table  employed  at 
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PLATTNER'S   Manual    of    Qualitative    and    Quantitative 

Analysis  with  the  Blow-pipe.  Eighth  Edition,  revised.  Translated 
by  Henry  B.  Cornwall,  E.M.,  Ph.D.,  assisted  by  John  H.  Caswell, 
A.M.  From  the  sixth  German  edition,  by  Prof.  Friederich  Kol- 
beck.  With  87  woodcuts.  463  pages.  8vo,  cloth net,  $4 .00 

PLYMPTON,   GEO.   W.,  Prof.      The  Aneroid  Barometer: 

its  Construction  and  Use.  Compiled  from  several  sources. 
Eighth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  16mo,  boards,  illus- 
trated   $0 . 50 

POCKET   LOGARITHMS,    to    Four   Places   of   Decimals, 

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Tangents  to  Single  Minutes.  To  which  is  added  a  Table  of 
Natural  Sines,  Tangents,  and  Co-tangents.  16mo,  boards.  $0.50 

POPE,  F.  L.     Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph. 

A  Technical  Handbook  for  Electricians,  Managers  and  Operators. 
Fifteenth  Edition,  rewritten  and  enlarged,  and  fully  illustrated.  8vo, 
cloth $1 . 50 

POPPLEWELL,  W.  C.     Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat  and 

Heat  Engines.  Specially  adapted  for  engineers  and  students  of 
engineering.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $3.00 


44  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

POPPLEWELL,  W.  C.     Prevention   of  Smoke,   combined 

with  the  Economical  Combustion  of  Fuel.  With  diagrams, 
figures  and  tables.  8vo,  cloth  illustrated net,  $3.50 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Grease,  for 

Lubrication,  etc.    By  an  Expert  Oil  Refiner.    8vo,  cloth .  net,  $3 . 50 

Practical   Iron   Founding.     By    the   Author    of    "  Pattern 

Making,"  etc.  Illustrated  with  over  100  engravings.  Third 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

PRAY,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator:    being 

a  Practical  Text-book  for  the  Engineer  or  the  Student,  with  no 
complex  Formulae.  Illustrated.  8vo,  cloth $2.5^ 

-  Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant.     Compiled  from 

Regnault,  Rankine  and  Dixon  directly,  making  use  of  the 
exact  records.  8vo,  cloth $2 . 00 

PREECE,  W.  H.     Electric  Lamps In  Press. 

-  and  STUBBS,  A.  T.      Manual  of  Telephony.     Illus- 
trations and  plates.     12mo,  cloth $4 . 50 

PRELINI,  C.,  C.E.    Earth  and  Rock  Excavation.    A  Manual 

for  Engineers,  Contractors,  and  Engineering  Students.  With 
tables  and  many  diagrams  and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $3.00 

Retaining  Walls  and  Dams.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

In  Press. 

Tunneling.     A    Practical    Treatise     containing     149 

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Hill,  C.E.,  Associate  Editor  "Engineering  News."  311  pages. 
Second  Edition,  revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $3 .00 

PREMIER  CODE.     (See  Hawke,  Win.  H.) 

PRESCOTT,  A.  B.,   Prof.     Organic  Analysis.     A  Manual 

of  the  Descriptive  and  Analytical  Chemistry  of  certain  Carbon 
Compounds  in  Common  Use;  a  Guide  in  the  Qualitative  and 
Quantitative  Analysis  of  Organic  Materials  in  Commercial  and 
Pharmaceutical  Assays,  in  the  Estimation  of  Impurities  under 
Authorized  Standards,  and  in  Forensic  Examinations  for  Poisons, 
with  Directions  for  Elementary  Organic  Analysis.  Fifth  Edi- 
tion. 8vo,  cloth $5 . 00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  45 

PRESC9TT,  A.  B.,  Prof.     Outlines  of  Proximate  Organic 

Analysis,  for  the  Identification,  Separation  and  Quantitative 
Determination  of  the  more  commonly  occurring  Organic  Com- 
pounds. Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 75 

and  JOHNSON,  O.  C.     Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

A  Guide  in  Qualitative  Work,  with  Data  for  Analytical  Opera- 
tions, and  Laboratory  Methods  in  Inorganic  Chemistry.  Sixth 
revised  and  enlarged  Edition,  entirely  rewritten,  with  an  appendix 
by  H.  H.  Willard,  containing  a  few  improved  methods  of  analysis. 
8vo,  cloth net ,  $3 . 50 

-  and  SULLIVAN,  E.  C.   (University  of  Michigan).    First 

Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry.  For  Studies  of  Water  Solution 
and  Mass  Action.  Twelfth  Edition,  entirely  rewritten.  12mo, 
cloth net,  $1 . 50 

PRITCHARD,  0.  G.      The  Manufacture   of  Electric-light 

Carbons.     Illustrated.     8vo,  paper $0.60 

PROST,  E.     Manual  of  Chemical  Analysis  as  Applied  to 

the  Assay  of  Fuels,  Ores,  Metals,  Alloys,  Salts,  and  other  Mineral 
Products.  Translated  from  the  original  by  J.  C.  Smith.  Part 
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ucts; Part  II,  Metals;  Part  III,  Alloys.  8vo,  cloth.  .  .net,  $4.50 

PULLEN,   W.   W.   F.       Application   of   Graphic  Methods 

to  the  Design  of  Structures.  Specially  prepared  for  the  use  of 
Engineers.  A  Treatment  by  Graphic  Methods  of  the  Forces 
and  Principles  necessary  for  consideration  in  the  Design  of  En- 
gineering Structures,  Roofs,  Bridges,  Trusses,  Framed  Structures, 
Wells,  Dams,  Chimneys,  and  Masonry  Structures.  12mo,  cloth, 
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PULSIFER,  W.  H.      Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead.     8vo, 

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PUTSCH,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing.     A  Critical  Review 

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since  1885.  With  diagrams  and  figures.  Translated  from  the 
German  by  Charles  Salter.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.00 

PYNCHON,  T.  R.,  Prof.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics, 

designed  for  the  use  of  Academies,  Colleges  and  High  Schools. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings,  and  containing  copious 
experiments,  with  directions  for  preparing  them.  New  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged,  and  illustrated  by  269  wood  engravings.  8vo, 
cloth $3.00 


46  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

RADFORD,  C.  S.,  Lieut.      Handbook  on  Naval  Gunnery. 

Prepared  by  Authority  of  the  Navy  Department.  For  the  use 
of  U.  S.  Navy,  U.  S.  Marine  Corps,  and  U.  S.  Naval  Reserves. 
Revised  and  enlarged,  with  the  assistance  of  Stokely  Morgan, 
Lieut.  U.  S.  N.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  12mo, 
flexible  leather , net,  $2.00 

RAFTER,    G.    W.      Treatment    of    Septic    Sewage    (Van 

Nostrand's  Science  Series,  No.  118).     16mo,  cloth $0 . 50 

-  Tables  for  Sewerage  and  Hydraulic  Engineers,  In  Press. 

-  and  BAKER,  M.  N.     Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United 

States.  Illustrations  and  folding  plates.  Third  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth $6.00 

RAM,  G.  S.  The  Incandescent  Lamp  and  its  Manufac- 
ture. 8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

RAMP,  H.  M.     Foundry  Practice In  Press. 

RANDALL,  J.  E.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Incan- 
descent Lamp.  16mo,  cloth,  illustrated $0 . 50 

RANDALL,    P.    M.     Quartz    Operator's    Handbook.      New 

Edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  fully  illustrated.     12mo,  cloth,  $2.00 

RANDAU,  P.     Enamels  and  Enamelling.    An  introduction 

to  the  preparation  and  application  of  all  kinds  of  enamels  for 
technical  and  artistic  purposes.  For  enamel-makers,  workers 
in  gold  and  silver,  and  manufacturers  of  objects  of  art.  Third 
German  Edition.  Translated  by  Charles  Salter.  With  figures, 
diagrams  and  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $4 . 00 

RANKINE,    W.    J.    M.     Applied    Mechanics.     Comprising 

the  Principles  of  Statics  and  Cinematics,  and  Theory  of  Struc- 
tures, Mechanism,  and  Machines.  With  numerous  diagrams. 
Seventeenth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo, 
cloth $5. 00 

Civil  Engineering.  Comprising  Engineering  Sur- 
veys, Earthwork,  Foundations,  Masonry,  Carpentry,  Metal- 
work,  Roads,  Railways,  Canals,  Rivers,  Water-works,  Harbors, 
etc.  With  numerous  tables  and  illustrations.  Twenty-first 
Edition,  thoroughly  revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth.  ...  $6 . 50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  47 

RANKINE,  W.  J.  M.  Machinery  and  Millwork.  Compris- 
ing the  Geometry,  Motions,  Work,  Strength,  Construction,  and 
Objects  of  Machines,  etc.  Illustrated  with  nearly  300  woodcuts. 
Seventh  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth. 

$5.00 

The   Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers.     With 

diagram  of  the  Mechanical  Properties  of  Steam.  Folding  plates, 
numerous  tables  and  illustrations.  Fifteenth  Edition,  thor- 
oughly revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

Useful   Rules  and  Tables  for  Engineers  and  Others. 

With  Appendix,  Tables,  Tests  and  Formulae  for  the  use  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers.  Comprising  Submarine  Electrical  Engineering, 
Electric  Lighting  and  Transmission  of  Power.  By  Andrew 
Jamieson,  C.E.,  F.R.S.E.  Seventh  Edition,  thoroughly  revised 
by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth $4.00 

and  BAMBER,  E.  F.,  C.E.     A  Mechanical  Text-book. 

With  numerous  illustrations.     Fifth  Edition.     8vo,  cloth.  .   $3.50 

RAPHAEL,    F.    C.     Localization    of    Faults    in    Electric 

Light  and  Power  Mains,  with  chapters  on  Insulation  Testing. 
With  figures  and  diagrams.  Second  Edition,  revised.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.00 

RATEAU,  A.     Experimental  Researches  on  the  Flow  of 

Steam  through  Nozzles  and  Orifices,  to  which  is  added  a  note  on 
the  Flow  of  Hot  Water.  (Extrait  des  Annales  des  Mines,  Janu- 
ary, 1902.)  Authorized  translation  by  H.  Boyd  Brydon.  With 
figures,  tables,  and  folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $1.50 

RAUTENSTRAUCH,  Prof.  W.     Syllabus  of  Lectures  and 

Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design.  With  blank  pages 
for  note-taking.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

RAYMOND,  E.  B.  Alternating-current  Engineering  Prac- 
tically Treated.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures.  Second 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth net,  $2 . 50 

RAYNER,  H.     Silk  Throwing   and  Waste  Silk  Spinning. 

With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures.     8vo,   cloth,   illustrated, 

net,  $2.50 

RECIPES    for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,   Oil,   Soap  and 

Drysaltery  Trades.  Compiled  by  an  Analytical  Chemist.  8vo, 
cloth.... $3.50 


48  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

RECIPES  FOR    FLINT  GLASS  MAKING.     Being  Leaves 

from  the  mixing-book  of  several  experts  in  the  Flint  Glass  Trade. 
Containing  up-to-date  recipes  and  valuable  information  as  to 
Crystal,  Demi-crystal,  and  Colored  Glass  in  its  many  varieties. 
It  contains  the  recipes  for  cheap  metal  suited  to  pressing,  blowing, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  most  costly  Crystal  and  Ruby.  British  manu- 
facturers have  kept  up  the  quality  of  this  glass  from  the  arrival  of 
the  Venetians  to  Hungry  Hill,  Stourbridge,  up  to  the  present 
time.  The  book  also  contains  remarks  as  to  the  result  of  the 
metal  as  it  left  the  pots  by  the  respective  metal  mixers,  taken 
from  their  own  memoranda  upon  the  originals.  Compiled  by 
a  British  Glass  Master  and  Mixer.  12mo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

REED'S   ENGINEERS'  HANDBOOK  to  the  Local  Marine 

Board  Examinations  for  Certificates  of  Competency  as  First  and 
Second  Class  Engineers.  By  W.  H.  Thorn.  With  the  answers 
to  the  Elementary  Questions.  Illustrated  by  358  diagrams 
and  37  large  plates.  Seventeenth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
8vo,  cloth $5.00 

Key  to  the  Seventeenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers' 

Handbook  to  the  Board  of  Trade  Examination  for  First  and 
Second  Class  Engineers,  and  containing  the  workings  of  all  the 
questions  given  in  the  examination  papers.  By  W.  H.  Thorn. 
8vo,  cloth $3 . 00 

REED.     Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers,  and  How  to 

Repair  and  Avoid  "Breakdowns";  also  appendices  containing 
Boiler  Explosions,  Useful  Formula?,  etc.  With  42  diagrams 
and  8  plates.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  12mo, 
cloth $1.50 

Marine  Boilers.  A  Treatise  on  the  Causes  and  Pre- 
vention of  their  Priming,  with  Remarks  on  their  General  Manage- 
ment. 12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 

REINHARDT,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers, 

and  Students.  A  Practical  System  of  Free-hand  Lettering  for 
Working  Drawings.  Revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Eighteenth 
Thousand.  Oblong  boards $1 . 00 

-  The   Technic   of  Mechanical   Drafting.     A  Practical 

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REISER,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel,  in  Theory 

and  Practice.  Translated  from  the  German  of  the  third  and 
enlarged  edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson.  8vo, 
cloth,  120  pages $2.50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  49 

REISER,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods, 

and  their  Prevention.  Translated  from  the  second  German 
edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $2 . 50 

Spinning    and    Weaving    Calculations    with    Special 

reference  to  Woolen  Fabrics.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
Chas.  Salter.  8vo,  cloth  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

RICE,  J.  M.,  and  JOHNSON,  W.  W.     On  a  New  Method 

of  Obtaining  the  Differential  of  Functions,  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  Newtonian  Conception  of  Rates  or  Velocities.  12mo, 
paper $0 . 50 

RIDEAL,  S.,  D.Sc.      Glue  and  Glue  Testing,  with  figures 

and  tables.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $4 . 00 

RIPPER,  W.     A  Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing 

and  Design  for  Technical  Schools  and  Engineer  Students.  With 
52  plates  and  numerous  explanatory  engravings.  Folio,  cloth, 

net,  $6.00 

ROBERTSON,    L.    S.     Water-tube    Boilers.     Based    on    a 

short  course  of  Lectures  delivered  at  University  College,  London. 
With  upward  of  170  illustrations  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated $3 . 00 

ROBINSON,   S.   W.     Practical   Treatise   on   the   Teeth   of 

Wheels,  with  the  theory  and  the  use  of  Robinson's  Odontograph. 
Third  Edition,  revised,  with  additions.  16mo,  cloth,  illustrated. 
(Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series.) $0 . 50 

ROEBLING,  J.  A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges. 

Illustrated  with  large  copper-plate  engravings  of  plans  and  views. 
Imperial  folio,  cloth $25 . 00 

ROLLINS,    W.     Notes    on   X-Light.     With    152    full-page 

plates.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $7 . 50 

ROSE,  J.,  M.E.  The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant.  Embrac- 
ing Lathe  Work,  Branch  Work,  Core  Work,  Sweep  Work  and 
Practical  Gear  Constructions,  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  Tools, 
together  with  a  large  collection  of  useful  and  valuable  Tables. 
Ninth  Edition.  With  250  engravings.  8vo,  cloth $2.50 


50  D    VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

ROSE,  J.,  M.E.    Key  to  Engines  and  Engine-running.     A 

Practical  Treatise  upon  the  Management  of  Steam-engines  and 
Boilers  for  the  use  of  those  who  desire  to  pass  an  examination  to 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  51 

SCHERER,    R.     Casein:    its   Preparation   and   Technical 

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SEIDELL,    A.     Handbook    of    Solubilities.     i2mo,  cloth. 

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SEWALL,   C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy.     With    diagrams 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  53 

SHAW,  S.     The  History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries,  and 

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SHELDON,  S.,  Ph.D.,  and  MASON,  H.,  B.S.  Dynamo- 
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SHIELDS,    J.    E.     Notes    on    Engineering    Construction. 

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54  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

SIMMS,  F.  W.     A  Treatise  on  the  Principles  and  Practice 

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SIMPSON,   G.     The  Naval  Constructor.     A  Vade  Mecum 

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SLATER,    J.    W.     Sewage     Treatment,    Purification    and 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  55 

SOXHLET,   D.  H.     Art  of  Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble, 

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SPANG,  H.  W.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Pro- 
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SPEYERS,     C.     L.     Text-book     of     Physical     Chemistry. 

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56  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

STILLMAN,  P.     Steam-engine  Indicator  and  the  Improved 

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STONE Y,  B.  D.     The  Theory  of  Stresses  in  Girders  and 

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SUFFLING,  E.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting. 

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SWOOPE,  C.  W.  Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity:  Prin- 
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TAILFER,    L.     Practical    Treatise    on    the    Bleaching    of 

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TEMPLETON,  W.      The  Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop 

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L 


SCIENTIFIC  •  PUBLICATIONS.  57 

THOM,  C.,  and  JONES,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections: 

embracing  Recent  Methods  in  Quadruplex  Telegraphy.  20  full- 
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THOMAS,  C.  W.     Paper-makers'  Handbook.    A  Practical 

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THOMPSON,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia  and  the  Russian 

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of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  concerning  Russian  Oil  Properties. 
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THOMPSON,    E.    P.,    M.E.     How    to    Make    Inventions; 

or,  Inventing  as  a  Science  and  an  Art.  A  Practical  Guide  for 
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Roentgen    Rays   and   Phenomena  of  the  Anode   and 

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Anthony.  50  diagrams,  40  half-tones.  8vo,  cloth $1 .00 

THOMPSON,   W.   P.    Handbook   of  Patent  Law   of  All 

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16mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

THORNLEY,  T.  Cotton  Combing  Machines.  With  Nu- 
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TOCH,  M.     Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints. 
8vo,  cloth In  Press. 


58  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

TODD,   J.,   and  WHALL,   W.   B.     Practical   Seamanship 

for  Use  in  the  Merchant  Service:  including  all  ordinary  subjects; 
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TOMPKINS,    A.    E.     Text-book    of   Marine    Engineering. 

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TRATMAN,  E.   E.   R.     Railway   Track   and   Track-work. 

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TUMLIRZ,  O.,  Dr.     Potential  and  its  Application  to  the 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  59 

UNDERBILL,    C.    R.     The    Electro-magnet.     New    and 

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60  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  61 

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— —  Modern    Methods   of   Sewage  Disposals   for   Towns, 

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62  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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WATT,  A.     Electro-plating  and  Electro-refining  of  Metals : 

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numerous  figures  and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  680 
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Tanning  Explained,  and  many  Recent  Processes  Introduced. 
With  numerous  illustrations.  New  Edition In  Press. 

WEALE,  J.     A  Dictionary  of  Terms  Used  in  Architecture, 

Building,  Engineering,  Mining,  Metullargy,  Archaeology,  the  Fine 
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WEBB,  H.  L.     A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insu- 
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The   Telephone   Handbook.      128   Illustrations.      146 

pages.     16mo,  cloth , $1 . 00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  63 

WEEKES,  R.  W.  The  Design  of  Alternate  Current  Trans- 
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WEISBACH,    J.     A    Manual    of    Theoretical    Mechanics. 

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by  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  A.M.,  Mining  Engineer.  1,100  pages  and  902 

woodcut  illustrations.     8vo,  cloth $6 . 00 

Sheep $7.50 

and  HERRMANN,  G.     Mechanics  of  Air  Machinery. 

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8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 75 

WESTON,  E.  B.     Tables  Showing  Loss  of  Head  Due  to 

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WEYMOUTH,  F.  M.     Drum  Armatures  and  Commutators. 

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WHEELER,    J.    B.,    Prof.    Art    of   War.     A    Course    of 

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WHIPPLE,  S.,  C.E.     An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise 

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WILKINSON,.  H.  D.     Submarine  Cable-laying,  Repairing, 

and  Testing.     8vo,  cloth.     New  Edition In  Press. 


64  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

WILLIAMSON,  R.  S.     On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer  on 

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WILLSON,    F.    N.      Theoretical    and    Practical    Graphics. 

An  Educational  Course  on  the  Theory  and  Practical  Applications 
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for  students  in  General  Science,  Engraving,  or  Architecture. 
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Third  Angle  Method  of  Making  Working  Drawings. 

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WINKLER,  C.,  and  LUNGE,  G.     Handbook  of  Technical 

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with  some  additions  by  George  Lunge,  Ph.D.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
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SCIENTIFIC   PUBLICATIONS.  65 

WOODBURY,  D.  V.  Treatise  on  the  Various  Elements 
of  Stability  in  the  Well-proportioned  Arch.  With  numerous 
tables  of  the  Ultimate  and  Actual  Thrust.  8vo,  half  morocco. 
Illustrated $4.00 

WRIGHT,  A.  C.    Analysis  of  Oils  and  Allied  Substances. 

8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  241  pages net,  $3 . 50 

Simple  Method  for  Testing  Painters'  Materials.     8vo, 

cloth,  160  pages : net,  $2.50 

WRIGHT,   T.  W.,   Prof,     (Union    College.)     Elements   of 

Mechanics;  including  Kinematics,  Kinetics  and  Statics.  With  ap- 
plications. Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth.  .  $2.50 

-  and  HAYFORD,  J.  F.     Adjustment  of  Observations 

by  the  Method  of  Least  Squares,  with  applications  to  Geodetic 
Work.  Second  Edition,  rewritten.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  net,  $3 . 00 

YOUNG,  J.  E.     Electrical  Testing  for  Telegraph  Engineers. 

With  Appendices  consisting  of  Tables.     8vo,  cloth,  illus. . .   $4.00 

YOUNG   SEAMAN'S   MANUAL.     Compiled   from   Various 

Authorities,  and  Illustrated  with  Numerous  Original  and  Select 
Designs,  for  the  Use  of  the  United  States  Training  Ships  and  the 
Marine  Schools.  8vo,  half  roan $3 . 00 

ZEUNER,  A.,  Dr.  Technical  Thermodynamics.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German,  by  Prof.  J.  F.  Klein,  Lehigh  University. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated .  . In  Press. 

ZIMMER,  G.  F.  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material.  Be- 
ing a  treatise  on  the  handling  of  material,  such  as  coal,  ore,  tim- 
ber, etc.,  by  automatic  and  semi-automatic  machinery,  together 
with  the  various  accessories  used  in  the  manipulation  of  such 
plant,  also  dealing  fully  with  the  handling,  storing,  and  ware- 
housing of  grain.  With  542  figures,  diagrams,  full-page  and  fold- 
ing plates.  Royal  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $10.00 

ZIPSER,  J.     Textile  Raw  Materials,  and  Their  Conversion 

into  Yarns.  The  study  of  the  Raw  Materials  and  the  Technology 
of  the  Spinning  Process.  A  Text-book  for  Textile,  Trade  and 
higher  Technical  Schools,  as  also  for  self -instruction.  Based  upon 
the  ordinary  syllabus  and  curriculum  of  the  Imperial  and  Royal 
Weaving  Schools.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Chas.  Salter. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5.00 


Catalogue  of  the  Van  Nostrand 
Science  Series. 


are  put  up  in  a  uniform,  neat,  and  attractive  form.     i8mot 
boards.      Price  50  cents  per  volume.      The  subjects  are  of  etn 
eminently  scientific  character  and  embrace  a  wide  range  of  topics,  and 
are  amply  illustrated  when  the  subject  demands. 

No.  i.  CHIMNEYS  FOR  FURNACES  AND  STEAM  BOILERS.  By 
R.  Armstrong,  C.E.  Third  American  Edition.  Revised  and 
partly  rewritten,  with  an  Appendix  on  ''Theory  of  Chimney 
Draught/'  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.E. 

No.  2.  STEAM-BOILER  EXPLOSIONS.  By  Zerah  Colburn.  New 
Edition,  revised  by  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

No.  3.  PRACTICAL  DESIGNING  OF  RETAINING-WALLS.  Fourth 
edition,  by  Prof.  W.  Cain. 

No.  4.  PROPORTIONS  OF  PINS  USED  IN  BRIDGES.  By  Charles 
E.  Bender,  C.E.  Second  edition,  with  Appendix. 

No.  5.  VENTILATION  OF  BUILDINGS.  By  Wm.  G.  Snow,  S.B.,  and 
Thos.  Nolan,  A.M. 

No.  6.  ON  THE  DESIGNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STORAGE 
Reservoirs.  By  Arthur  Jacob,  B.A.  Third  American  edition, 
revised,  with  additions  by  E.  Sherman  Gould. 

No.  7.  SURCHARGED  AND  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RETAINING- 

walls.     By  James  S.  Tate,  C.E. 

No.  8.  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  COMPOUND  STEAM-ENGINE.  By 
John  Turnbull,  Jr.  2nd  edition,  revised  by  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson. 

No.  9.  A  TREATISE  ON  FUEL.  By  Arthur  V.  Abbott,  C.E.  Founded 
on  the  original  treatise  of  C.  William  Siemens,  D.C.L.  Third  ed. 

No.  10.  COMPOUND  ENGINES.  Translated  from  the  French  of  A. 
Mallet.  Second  edition,  revised  with  results  of  American  Prac- 
tice, by  Richard  H.  Buel,  C.E. 

No.  ii.  THEORY  OF  ARCHES.     By  Prof.  W.  Allan. 

No.  12.  THEORY  OF  VOUSSOIR  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  Wm.  Cain. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  13.  GASES  MET  WITH  IN  COAL  MINES.  By  J.  T.  Atkinson. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  to  which  is  added  The  Action 
of  Coal  Dusts  by  Edward  H.  Williams,  Jr. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  14.  FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  MINES.  By  J.  J.  Atkinson.  Second 
American  edition. 

No.  15.  SKEW  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  E.  W.  Hyde,  C.E.  Illustrated. 
Second  edition. 

No.  1 6.  GRAPHIC  METHOD  FOR  SOLVING  CERTAIN  QUESTIONS 

in    Arithmetic    or    Algebra.      By    Prof.    G.    L.    Vose.      Second 
edition. 

No.  17.  WATER  AND  WATER-SUPPLY.  By  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield, 
of  the  University  College,  London.  Second  American  edition. 

No.  1 8.  SEWERAGE   AND    SEWAGE    PURIFICATION.     By    M.    N. 

Baker,  Associate  Editor  "  Engineering  News."     Second  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  19.  STRENGTH  OF  BEAMS  UNDER  TRANSVERSE  LOADS. 
By  Prof.  W.  Allan,  author  of  "Theory  of  Arches."  Second 
edition,  revised. 

No.  20.  BRIDGE  AND  TUNNEL  CENTRES.  By  John  B.  McMaster, 
C.E.  Second  edition. 

No.  21.  SAFETY  VALVES.     By  Richard  H.  Buel,  C.E.     Third  edition. 

No.  22.  HIGH  MASONRY  DAMS.  By  E.  Sherman  Gould,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E. 

No.  23.  THE  FATIGUE  OF  METALS  UNDER  REPEATED  STRAINS. 
With  various  Tables  of  Results  and  Experiments.  From  the 
German  of  Prof.  Ludwig  Spangenburg,  with  a  Preface  by  S.  H. 
Shreve,  A.M. 

No.  24.  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  TEETH  OF  WHEELS. 
By  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson.  2nd  edition,  revised,  with  additions. 

No.  25.  THEORY  AND  CALCULATION  OF  CANTILEVER  BRIDGES. 
By  R.  M.  Wilcox. 

No.  26.  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  CON- 

tinuous  Bridges.     By  Charles  Bender,  C.E. 

No.  27.  BOILER    INCRUSTATION    AND    CORROSION.     By    F.    J. 

Rowan.     New  edition.     Revised  and  partly  rewritten  by  F.  E. 
Idell. 

No.  28.  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  WIRE  ROPES.     By  Albert 

W.  Stahl,  U.S.N.     Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  29.  STEAM  INJECTORS,  THEIR  THEORY  AND  USE.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  M.  Leon  Pochet. 

No.  30.  MAGNETISM    OF    IRON    VESSELS    AND    TERRESTRIAL 

Magnetism.     By  Prof.  Fairman  Rogers. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  31.  THE  SANITARY  CONDITION  OF  CITY  AND  COUNTRY 
Dwelling-houses.  By  George  E.  Waring,  Jr.  Second  edition, 
revised. 

No.  32.  CABLE-MAKING    FOR    SUSPENSION    BRIDGES.    By    W. 

Hildenbrand,  C.E. 

No.  33.  MECHANICS  OF  VENTILATION.  By  George  W.  Rafter,  C.E. 
Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  34.  FOUNDATIONS.  By  Prof.  Jules  Gaudard,  C.E.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French.  Second  edition. 

No.  35-  THE  ANEROID  BAROMETER:  ITS  CONSTRUCTION  AND 
Use.  Compiled  by  George  W.  Plympton.  Ninth  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  36.  MATTER  AND  MOTION.    By  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  M.A.     Second 
4^  -.^nerican  edition. 

No.  37.  GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING:  ITS  USES,  METHODS, 
arid  Results.  By  Frank  De  Yeaux  Carpenter,  C.E. 

No.  38.  MAXIMUM  STRESSES  IN  FRAMED  BRIDGES.  By  Prof. 
William  Cain,  A.M.,  C.E.  New  and  revised  edition. 

No.  39-  A  HANDBOOK  OF  THE  ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  TELE- 
graph.  By  A.  E.  Loring.  Fourth  edition,  revised. 

No.  40.  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  COMPRESSED  AIR.  By 
Robert  Zahner,  M.E.  New  edition,  in  press. 

No.  41.  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.     By    William    Kent,    C.E., 

Assoc.  Editor  "  Engineering  News."     Second  edition. 

No.  42.  THEORY  OF  STEEL-CONCRETE  ARCHES,  AND  OF 
Vaulted  Structures.  By  Prof.  Wm.  Cain.  Third  edition, 
thoroughly  revised. 

No.  43.  WAVE  AND  VORTEX  MOTION.  By  Dr.  Thomas  Craig, 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

No.  44.  TURBINE  WHEELS.  By  Prof.  W.  P.  Trowbridge,  Columbia 
College.  Second  edition.  Revised. 

No.  45.  THERMO-DYNAMICS.  By  Prof.  H.  T.  Eddy,  University 
of  Cincinnati.  New  edition,  in  press. 

No.  46.  ICE-MAKING  MACHINES.  From  the  French  of  M.  Le  Dour. 
Revised  by  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton,  D.  S.  Jacobus,  and  A.  Riesenberger. 
Fifth  edition,  revised. 

No.  47.  LINKAGES:  THE  DIFFERENT  FORMS  AND  USES  OF 
Articulated  Links.  By  J.  D.  C.  De  Roos. 

No.  48.  THEORY  OF  SOLID  AND  BRACED  ELASTIC  ARCHES 
By  William  Cain,  C.E. 

No.  49.  MOTION  OF  A  SOLID  IN  A  FLUID.     By  Thomas  Craig,  Ph.D, 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  50.  DWELLING-HOUSES:      THEIR     SANITARY     CONSTRUC- 

tion  and  Arrangements.     By  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield. 

No.  51.  THE  TELESCOPE  :  OPTICAL  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN 
the  Construction  of  Refracting  and  Reflecting  Telescopes,  with 
a  new  chapter  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Modern  Telescope,  and  a 
Bibliography  to  date.  With  diagrams  and  folding  plates.  By 
Thomas  Nolan.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  52.  IMAGINARY    QUANTITIES:     THEIR    GEOMETRICAL    IN- 

terpretation.     Translated  from    the    French    of   M.    Argand  by 
Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy. 

No.  53.  INDUCTION  COILS:  HOW  MADE  AND  HOW  USED. 
Eleventh  American  edition. 

No.  54.  KINEMATICS  OF  MACHINERY.  By  Prof.  Alex.  B.  W. 
Kennedy.  With  an  introduction  by  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

No.  55.  SEWER  GASES:    THEIR  NATURE  AND  ORIGIN.     By  A. 

de  Varona.     Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  56.  THE  ACTUAL  LATERAL  PRESSURE  OF  EARTHWORK. 
By  Benj.  Baker,  M.  Inst.,  C.E. 

No.  57.  INCANDESCENT  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.  A  Practical  De- 
scription of  the  Edison  System.  By  L.  H.  Latimer.  To 
which  is  added  the  Design  and  Operation  of  Incandescent  Sta- 
tions, by  C.  J.  Field;  and  the  Maximum  Efficiency  of  Incandescent 
Lamps,  by  John  W.  How  ell. 

No.  58.  VENTILATION  OF  COAL  MINES.  By  W.  Fairley,  M.E., 
and  Geo.  J.  Andre". 

No.  59.  RAILROAD  ECONOMICS;  OR,  NOTES  WITH  COMMENTS. 
By  S.  W.  Robinson,  C.E. 

No.  60.  STRENGTH  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  BRIDGE  MEMBERS. 
By  S.  W.  Robinson,  C.E. 

No.  61.  POTABLE    WATER,    AND    METHODS    OF     DETECTING 

Impurities.     By  M.  N.  Baker.    Second  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  62.  THEORY  OF  THE  GAS-ENGINE.  By  Dougald  Clerk.  Third 
edition.  With  additional  matter.  Edited  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.E. 

No.  63.  HOUSE-DRAINAGE  AND  SANITARY  PLUMBING.  By  W. 
P.  Gerhard.  Tenth  edition. 

No.  64.  ELECTRO-MAGNETS.     By  A.  N.  Mansfield. 

No.  65.  POCKET  LOGARITHMS  TO  FOUR  PLACES  OF  DECIMALS. 

Including  Logarithms  of  Numbers,  etc. 

No.  66.  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINERY.  By  S.  P.  Thompson. 
With  an  Introduction  by  F.  L.  Pope.  Third  edition,  revised. 

No.  67.  HYDRAULIC  TABLES  FOR  THE  CALCULATION  OF  THE 
Discharge  through  Sewers,  Pipes,  and  Conduits.  Based  on 
"Kutter's  Formula."  By  P.  J.  Flynn. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  68.  STEAM-HEATING.  By  Robert  Briggs.  Third  edition,  re- 
vised, with  additions  by  A.  R.  Wolff. 

No.  69.  CHEMICAL  PROBLEMS.  By  Prof.  J.  C.  Foye.  Fourth 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  70.  EXPLOSIVE  MATERIALS.     By  Lieut  John  P.  Wisser. 

No.  71.  DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY.  By  John  Hopkinson,  J.  A. 
Shoolbred,  and  R.  E.  Day. 

No.  72.  TOPOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING.  By  George  J.  Specht, 
Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy,  John  B.  McMaster,  and  H.  F.  Walling.  Third 
edition,  revised. 

No.  73.  SYMBOLIC  ALGEBRA;  OR,  THE  ALGEBRA  OF  ALGE- 

braic  Numbers.     By  Prof.  William  Cain. 

Ne.  74.  TESTING    MACHINES:      THEIR    HISTORY,    CONSTRUC- 

tion  and  Use.     By  Arthur  V.  Abbott. 

No.  75.  RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINES. 
Being  a  Supplement  to  "Dynamo-electric  Machinery."  By 
Prof.  Sylvanus  P.  Thompson. 

No.  76.  MODERN    REPRODUCTIVE    GRAPHIC    PROCESSES.     By 

Lieut.  James  S.  Pettit,  U.S.A. 

No.  77.  STADIA  SURVEYING.  The  Theory  of  Stadia  Measure- 
ments. By  Arthur  Winslow.  Sixth  edition, 

No.  78.  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR  AND  ITS  USE.  By 
W.  B.  Le  Van. 

No.  79.  THE  FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH.     By  Frank  C.  Roberts,  C.E. 

No.  80.  HEALTHY  FOUNDATIONS  FOR  HOUSES.  By  Glenn 
Brown. 

No.  81.  WATER  METERS:  COMPARATIVE  TESTS  OF  ACCURACY, 

Delivery,  etc.     Distinctive   features  of   the    Worthington,    Ken- 
nedy, Siemens,  and  Hesse  meters.     By  Ross  E.  Browne. 

No.  82.  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER  BY  THE  USE  OF  ANTI- 
septics.  By  Samuel  Bagster  Boulton,  C.E. 

No.  83.  MECHANICAL  INTEGRATORS.  By  Prof.  Henry  S.  H. 
Shaw,  C.E. 

No.  84.  FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  OPEN  CHANNELS,  PIPES,  CON- 
duits,  Sewers,  etc.  With  Tables.  By  P.  J.  Flynn,  C.E. 

No.  85.  THE  LUMINIFEROUS  AETHER.     By  Prof.  De  Volson  Wood. 

No.  86.  HANDBOOK   OF   MINERALOGY:     DETERMINATION,    DE- 

scription,  and   Classification  cf  Minerals   Found   in   the  United 
States.     By  Prof.  J.  C.  Foye.     Fifth  edition,  revised. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  87.  TREATISE  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION 

of  Helicoidal  Oblique  Arches.     By  John  L.  Culley,  C.E. 

No.  88.  BEAMS  AND  GIRDERS.     Practical  Formulas  for  their  Resist- 
ance.    By  P.  H.  Philbrick. 

No.  89.  MODERN    GUN    COTTON:     ITS    MANUFACTURE,    PROP- 
erties,  and  Analyses.     By  Lieut.  John  P.  Wisser,  US. A. 

No.  90.  ROTARY  MOTION  AS  APPLIED    TO    THE   GYROSCOPE. 

By  Major  J.  G.  Barnard. 

No.  91.  LEVELING:       BAROMETRIC,      TRIGONOMETRIC,      AND 

Spirit.     By  Prof.  I.  O.  Baker.    Second  edition. 

No.  92.  PETROLEUM:  ITS  PRODUCTION  AND  USE.    By  Boverton 
Redwood,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

No.  93.  RECENT  PRACTICE  IN  THE  SANITARY  DRAINAGE   OF 

Buildings.  With  Memoranda  on  the  Cost  of  Plumbing  Work. 
Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  By  William  Paul  Ger- 
hard, C.E. 

No.  94.  THE  TREATMENT  OF  SEWAGE.  By  Dr.  C.  Meymott 
Tidy. 

No.  95.  PLATE-GIRDER  CONSTRUCTION.  By  Isami  Hiroi,  C.E. 
Fourth  edition,  revised. 

No.  96.  ALTERNATE  CURRENT  MACHINERY.  By  Gisbert  Kapp. 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.E. 

No.  97.  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  HOUSEHOLD  WASTES.  By  W.  Paul 
Gerhard,  Sanitary  Engineer. 

No.  98.  PRACTICAL  DYNAMO-BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS.  HOW 
to  Wind  for  Any  Output.  By  Frederick  Walker.  Fully  illus- 
trated. Third  edition. 

No.  99.  TRIPLE-EXPANSION    ENGINES    AND    ENGINE    TRIALS. 

By  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds.  Edited  with  notes,  etc.,  by  F.  E. 
Idell,  M.E. 

No.  100.  HOW  TO  BECpME  AN  ENGINEER;    or.  The  Theoretical 

and  Practical  Training  necessary  in  Fitting  for  the  Duties  of 
the  Civil  Engineer.  By  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  JOT.  THE  SEXTANT,  and  Other  Reflecting  Mathematical  Instru- 
ments. With  Practical  Hints  for  their  Adjustment  and  Use. 
By  F.  R.  Brainard,  U.  S.  Navy. 

No7i02.  THE     GALVANIC     CIRCUIT     INVESTIGATED     MATHE- 

matically  By  Dr.  G.  S.  Ohm,  Berlin,  1827.  Translated  by 
William  Francis.  With  Preface  and  Notes  by  the  Editor,  Thomas 
D.  Lockwood,  M.I.E.E. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  103.  THE  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  POTABLE 
Water.  With  Diagrams.  By  Geo.  W.  Rafter.  Second  edition. 

No.  104.  VAN  NOSTRAND'S  TABLE-BOOK  FOR  CIVIL  AND  ME- 

chanical  Engineers.     Compiled  by  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  105.  DETERMINANTS.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of,  with 
Examples  and  Applications.  By  Prof.  G.  A.  Miller. 

No.  106.  COMPRESSED  AIR.  Experiments  upon  the  Transmission  of 
Power  by  Compressed  Air  in  Paris.  (Popp's  System.)  By 
Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy.  The  Transmission  and  Distribution 
of  Power  from  Central  Stations  by  Compressed  Air.  By  Prof. 
W.  C.  Unwin.  Edited  by  F.  E.  Idell.  Third  edition. 


No.  107.  A  GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FpR  SWING  BRIDGES.  A 
Rational  and  Easy  Graphical  Analysis  of  the  Stresses  in  Ordinary 
Swing  Bridges.  With  an  Introduction  on  the  General  Theory 
of  Graphical  Statics,  with  Folding  Plates.  By  Benjamin  F. 
La  Rue. 

No.  1  08.  SLIDE-VALVE  DIAGRAMS.  A  French  Method  for  Con- 
structing Slide-valve  Diagrams.  By  Lloyd  Bankson,  B.S., 
Assistant  Naval  Constructor,  U.  S.  Navy.  8  Folding  Plates. 

No.  109.  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS.  Elec- 
trical Measuring  Instruments.  By  James  Swinburne.  Meters 
for  Electrical  Energy.  By  C.  H.  Wordingham.  Edited,  with 
Preface,  by  T.  Commerford  Martin.  With  Folding  Plate  and 
Numerous  illustrations. 

No.  no.  TRANSITION  CURVES.  A  Field-book  for  Engineers,  Con- 
taining Rules  and  Tables  for  Laying  out  Transition  Curves.  By 
Walter  G.  Fox,  C.E. 

No.  in.  GAS-LIGHTING  AND  GAS-FITTING.  Specifications  and 
Rules  for  Gas-piping.  Notes  on  the  Advantages  of  Gas  for 
Cooking  and  Heating,  and  Useful  Hints  to  Gas  Consumers.  Third 
edition.  By  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.E. 

No.  112.  A  PRIMER  ON  THE  CALCULUS,  By  E.  Sherman  Gould, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  113.  PHYSICAL  PROBLEMS  and  Their  Solution.  By  A.  Bour- 
gougnon,  formerly  Assistant  at  Bellevue  Hospital.  Second  ed. 

No.  114.  MANUAL  OF  THE  SLIDE  RULE.  By  F.  A.  Halsey,  of 
the  "American  Machinist."  Third  edition,  corrected. 

No,  115.  TRAVERSE  TABLE.  Showing  the  Difference  of  Latitude 
and  Departure  for  Distances  Between  1  and  100  and  for  Angles  to 
Quarter  Degrees  Between  1  Degree  and  90  Degrees.  (Reprinted 
from  Seribner's  Pocket  Ta'  -~  i  Book.) 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  116.  WORM  AND  SPIRAL  GEARING.  Reprinted  from  "  Ameri- 
can Machinist."  By  F.  A.  Halsey.  Second  revised  and  enlarged 
edition. 

No.  117.  PRACTICAL  HYDROSTATICS,  AND  HYDROSTATIC  FpR- 
mulas.  With  Numerous  Illustrative  Figures  and  Numerical 
Examples.  By  E.  Sherman  Gould. 

No.  118.  TREATMENT  OF  SEPTIC  SEWAGE,  with  Diagrams  and 
Figures.  By  Geo.  W.  Rafter. 

No.  119.  LAY-OUT  OF  CORLISS  VALVE  GEARS.  With  Folding 
Plates  and  Diagrams.  By  Sanford  A.  Moss,  M.S  ,  Ph.D  Re- 
printed from  "The  American  Machinist,"  with  revisions  and 

additions.     Second  edition. 

No.  120.  ART  OF  GENERATING  GEAR  TEETH.  By  Howard  A. 
Coombs.  With  Figures,  Diagrams  and  Folding  Plates.  Re- 
printed from  the  "American  Machinist." 

No.  121.  ELEMENTS  OF  GAS  ENGINE  DESIGN.  Reprint  of  a  Set 
of  Notes  accompanying  a  Course  of  Lectures  delivered  at  Cornell 
University  in  1902.  By  Sanford  A.  Moss.  Illustrated. 

No.  122.  SHAFT  GOVERNORS.  By  W.  Trinks  and  C.  Housum:  Il- 
lustrated. 

No.  123.  FURNACE  DRAFT;  ITS  PRODUCTION  BY  MECHANICAL 
Methods.  A  Handy  Reference  Book,  with  figures  and  tables.  By 
William  Wallace  Christie.  Illustrated, 


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